Input-Output Multiplier Analysis for Major Industries in the Philippines.Pdf

11th National Convention on Statistics (NCS) EDSA Shangri-La Hotel October 4-5, 2010 INPUT-OUTPUT MULTIPLIER ANALYSIS FOR MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN THE PHILIPPINES by Madeline B. Dumaua For additional information, please contact: Author’s name Designation Affiliation Address Tel. no. E-mail Madeline B. Dumaua Statistician III Statistical Research and Training Center Quezon City +632-4260620 [email  protected] gov. ph INPUT-OUTPUT MULTIPLIER ANALYSIS FOR MAJOR INDUSTRIES IN THE PHILIPPINES1 by Madeline B. Dumaua2 ABSTRACT The study aims to assess the impact of the different major industries of the Philippines using Input-Output Multiplier Analysis. It attempts to do this by using the 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines (I-O Accounts), the most recently published tables by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). As the economic importance of the 11 major industries is growing among the policy makers and researchers, this study applied input-output technique in determining economic effects to gauge the significance of these industries in generating output, income and employment. Key sectors are identified in term of multipliers; the higher the multiplier, the stronger is the ability of the corresponding sector to create multiple impacts in the economy. The obtained multipliers showed that among major industries, the Manufacturing Industry showed the highest final demand-to-output multiplier; the Construction Industry gained the highest output-to-output multiplier; and Private Services Industry is found to have the highest income and employment multipliers. KEY WORDS: Input-output, Multiplier 1. Introduction Sectors of an economy are naturally interdependent. An input stimulates production in a sector directly, but it may also stimulate production in other sectors as well, where the intensity can be downgraded. The residual effect of an input beyond the intended sector is called multiplier that describes interrelationships among sectors of the economy. The multiplier effect provides a quantification of the direct and indirect effect on growth of the sector, possibly measured in terms of production output. Different economic multipliers like those for output, income, and employment can be used to determine economic effect for an industry. The Leontieff model or the Input-Output model can be used to track the complex web of production linkages among industries in the country within the framework of interdependencies. This study will assess the impact of the different sectors of the economy in terms of output, income and employment. Thus, Input-Output multiplier analysis was performed to determine the effect of the different major industry groups. 2. Objectives of the Study The study aimed to measure the economic effects of the major industry groups using Input-Output Multiplier Analysis. Specifically, the study intended to: 1. easure the multiplier effect of changes in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy (Final Demand-to-Output Impact Multiplier) 1 2 One of the in-house research undertakings of the Research and Information Technology Division (RITD) of the Statistical Research and Training Center (SRTC) of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) Statistician III, Res earch and Information Technology Division (RITD) of the Statistical Research and Training Center (SRTC) of the National Economic and Development Authority (NEDA) 1 2. etermine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on the total output (Outputto-Output Impact Multiplier) 3. find out the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income (Household Income Multiplier) 4. determine the impact changes of output in an industry on employment (Employment Multiplier) 3. Significance of the Study In economics, the multiplier effect refers to the idea that the initial amount of money invested by government leads to an even greater increase in national income. In other words, an initial change in aggregate demand causes a change in ggregate output of the economy that is multiple of the initial. This measures the degree to which various businesses and households in an economy are interrelated. This measure the impact of a given external change, such as new inv estment, export expansion, start up of a new businesses, on total economic activity in a given community or country, through the respending of new dollars within that economy. The multiplier has been used to justify government spending or taxation relief that will stimulate aggregate demand. Many governments consider spending/tax break as instruments to stimulate aggregate demand. This is usually implemented during a period of recession or economic uncertainty. The money invested by a government is believed to create more jobs, which in turn will mean more spending that further fuel activities in various sectors of the economy. The idea is that the net increase in disposable income by different stakeholders throughout the economy will be greater than the original investment. As this happens, government can increase the gross domestic product by an amount that is greater than an increase in the amount it spends relative to the amount it collects in taxes. Multiplier focuses on the relationship between spending and consumption. It is also referred as expenditure multiplier. The concept holds that a spending, whether initiated by the government, corporations or households, will trigger the national income. Expenditure multiplier does not differentiate between consumption and investment spending. Examples of multipliers include I-O multipliers which are derived from I-O tables and show the impact of spending in certain industry on various economic variable including GDP, employment, output and wages and salaries, etc. . Limitations of the Study The paper makes use of the 2000 Input-Output tables from the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). It only uses I-O multiplier analysis in estimating multipliers. While I-O multipliers can be a rich source of information, they also have some limitations. These include: I-O models treat all inputs as complements and exclude substitutes implying that increases in the demand for one input w ill only lead to demand increases for other inputs. The I-O model does not consider price-adjusting behavior or substitution effects. Because the model is entirely open, there is no scarcity of resources. The economy is assumed to have limitless amounts of all the inputs it requires. 2 I-O models produce a snapshot of the economy at a given point in time. Structural changes in the economy over time will reduce the validity of results produced by I-O models. Analysis based on I-O models does not explicitly consider alternatives and tends to show only benefits of expenditures while ignoring costs. The impacts considered through the I-O model are short-term and at the margin: there is no consideration of whether the economy has the capacity to incorporate the changes and whether changes in production are sustainable or cost competitive. Given these limitations, I-O multipliers can still provide a useful, but rough, initial indication of the economic impact of changes in spending in different industries. 5. Data and Methodology This study was primarily carried out based on the 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines (I-O Accounts), the most recently published tables by the National Statistical Coordination Board (NSCB). In order to assess the economic effect of all major industries in the whole economy, the Input-Output Multiplier Analysis was used. The major industry groups used in the study include the following: For the employment multiplier analysis, data for the total number of persons employed in each industry was taken from the 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry (CPBI) of the National Statistics Office (NSO) while data for the Gross Value-Added (GVA) was taken from 2000 Economic Accounts of the NSCB. Table 1. Major Industry Groups Major Industry Groups Code 01 Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 02 Mining and Quarrying 03 Manufacturing 04 Construction 05 Electricity, Gas and Water 06 Transportation, Storage and Communication 07 Wholesale and Retail Trade 08 Finance 09 Real Estate 10 Private Services 11 Government Services 5. 1 Computation of Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Final Demand-to-Output multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get the column elements of the inverse matrix for all major industries. 2. Multiply the column elements by the impact variable to get the specific impact on each industry. . Get the total of the column elements of the inverse matrix for all major industries. 4. Multiply the total column elements by the impact variable to get the impact on the entire economy. 3 5. 2 Output-to-Output Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Output-to-Output multiplier analysis is described below: 1. 2. 3. 4. Obtain the IO inverse matrix for all major industries. Divide each column by its diagonal element. Get the column sums of the output-to-output inverse matrix. The column sums are the output-to-output multipliers for each industry. 5. 3. Household Income Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating Household Income multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get the household income coefficients of all the major industries in the economy by dividing the compensation of employees by the total input of the corresponding industry. 2. Multiply the column elements of the inverse matrix of all major industries by all the household income coefficients. 3. Add all the products to get the household income multiplier. 5. 4 Employment Multiplier The step by step procedure in generating employment multiplier analysis is described below: 1. Get employment coefficients of all industries in the economy by calculating the employment in each industry and dividing it by gross value-added (GVA). Data for the total number of persons employed in each industry was taken from the 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry (CPBI) of the National Statistics Office (NSO). Data for GVA was taken from 2000 Economic Accounts of the NSCB. 2. After getting the employment coefficients, get the employment multiplier. Employment multiplier is computed by multiplying employment coefficient with inverse matrix. This gives the individual effects of construction for each industry. If we sum up the multipliers, this somehow gives an effect of the construction industry in the economy. 3. In doing simulation, i. e. , government increases construction output by One (1) Billion, multiply the 1billion increase to each employment multiplier where the result will provide possible additional jobs in every industry creating a corresponding effect in the whole. 4. These multipliers are additional jobs aside from the existing employment in the construction. In other words, the multiplier analysis assumes that from start to finish, these additional employments were generated already, or in place. The IO multiplier analysis cannot determine whether these additional jobs happened before, during or after the construction stages. 6. Results and Discussion 6. 1 Summary of Multipliers Following the computation procedure presented above, the I-O multipliers were estimated for output, income and employment in the Philippine economy. An I-O model has the ability to identify the important sectors of an economy at a national (or even at a regional level). Key sectors are identified in term of multipliers; the higher the multiplier, the 4 stronger is the ability of the corresponding sector to create multiple impacts in the economy. The sectoral multipliers are used in the impact analysis to estimate the impacts for policy change in all 11 sectors, see Table 2 for details. Among the 11 major industries, the Manufacturing Industry yields the largest finaldemand to output multiplier of 2. 15. The Construction Industry and the Transportation, Communication and Storage Industry constitute the second and third most important output generating industries with both multipliers of around 1. 93, respectively. However, output-to-output multiplier shows that the Construction Industry yields the highest multiplier of 1. 2, which means that a one-peso change in the output of the Construction Industry generates a 1. 92 pesos worth of additional output in the economy. This is followed by Transportation, Communication and Storage and the Private Services, with multipliers of 1. 85 and 1. 70, respectively. Output-to-output multipliers can be used to measure the impact of a change in output in a particular industry on the output of the whole economy. The Private Services Industry is the most important income generating sector with the highest income multiplier of 0. 39. The second most important sector is the Construction Industry in terms of income generation which is holding an income multiplier of 0. 36. The Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry ranks third among the income generating industries with an income multiplier of 0. 33. 5 Table 2. Summary of the Multipliers: Final Demand-to-Output, Output-to-Output, Household Income, and Employment. Final OutputHousehold Total DemandOutput Income Employment Industry Description Output Multipliers Multiplier Multipliers Multipliers Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 1. 466693 1. 321942 0. 336922 0. 000001 Mining and Quarrying 1. 702768 1. 647777 0. 235379 0. 00002 Manufacturing 2. 152964 1. 340648 0. 265802 0. 000004 Construction 1. 937681 1. 923491 0. 365889 0. 000003 Electricity, Gas and Water 1. 567449 1. 431400 0. 198316 0. 000002 Transportation, Communication and Storage 1. 937634 1. 859610 0. 256182 0. 000003 Trade 1. 658849 1. 611999 0. 265008 0. 000005 Finance 1. 654636 1. 636633 0. 244516 0. 000003 Real Estate 1. 197308 1. 194264 0. 05703 0. 000004 Private Services 1. 919238 1. 701126 0. 391793 0. 000006 Government Services 1. 533628 1. 533628 0. 080845 0. 000001 6 The number of employment generated for a given unit of expenditure/output can be estimated by employment multiplier. The result shows that the Private Services Industry has the highest employment multiplier of 6Ãâ€"10-6. The second highest important sector in generating employment is the Trade (Wholesale and Retail) Industry with a multiplier of 6Ãâ€"10-5 followed by the Manufacturing and Real Estate Industries with both employment multipliers of around 6Ãâ€"10-5. 6. 2 Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier Effect The final demand-to-output multiplier is used to measure the impact of a change in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy. This tells us about the additional output generated in each industry given an impact increase in the investment in each industry (impact variable). Table 3 shows the impact of a 100 million peso increase the investments in the 11 major industries. Results showed that this spending has the greatest impact in the Manufacturing Industry with an additional generated output of 215 million pesos. This is followed by the Construction Industry and the Transportation, Communication and Storage Industry with both an additional output of approximately 193 million pesos. 7 Table 3. Final Demand-to-Output Multiplier Effect for a 100 Million Investment. Industry Output Multipliers Impact Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry 1. 466693 146,669,300 Mining and Quarrying 1. 702768 170,276,800 Manufacturing 2. 152964 215,296,400 Construction 1. 937681 193,768,100 Electricity, Gas and Water 1. 567449 156,744,900 Transportation, Communication and Storage 1. 937634 193,763,400 Trade 1. 658849 165,884,900 Finance 1. 654636 165,463,600 Real Estate 1. 197308 119,730,800 Private Services 1. 919238 191,923,800 Government Services 1. 533628 153,362,800 8 Table 4 shows the inverse matrices of the 11 major industries, which is the direct and indirect effect of a one-peso change in final demand for a particular industry on the output of other industries and the economy as a whole. The sums of column elements of the inverse matrix for the 11 industries are called final demand-tooutput multipliers. The Manufacturing Industry yields the largest output multiplier of 2. 15 among the 11 major industries. Of its 2. 15 multiplier, the additional output generated in the Manufacturing itself for a peso change in the final demand for Manufacturing Industry is 1. 0; an additional output of 0. 19 in the Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry Industry; and an additional generated output of 0. 13 in the Trade Industry. The Construction Sector, which constitutes the second most important output generating industry, has a multiplier of 1. 93. This shows that a peso change in the final demand for the Construction Industry generates 1. 93 pesos worth of additi onal or incremental output in the economy. Moreover, of this total multiplier, a peso change in the final demand for the Construction Industry generates an additional output of 1. 00, 0. 53 and 0. 0 in the Construction, Manufacturing and in the Transportation, Communication and Storage industries, respectively. 9 Table 4. Final Demand-to-Output Impact Multipliers Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 01 1. 109499 0. 045780 0. 195436 0. 066634 0. 030540 0. 073292 02 0. 013579 1. 033373 0. 084080 0. 055157 0. 086973 0. 031180 03 0. 241695 0. 342875 1. 605913 0. 536138 0. 238312 0. 582694 04 0. 001967 0. 013762 0. 002122 1. 007377 0. 002711 0. 002136 05 0. 018788 0. 073066 0. 045204 0. 021301 1. 095046 0. 023748 06 0. 011616 0. 026676 0. 031898 0. 108802 0. 020999 1. 041957 07 0. 028925 0. 037978 0. 131903 0. 058128 0. 042323 0. 059100 08 0. 13211 0. 025827 0. 020688 0. 028335 0. 008581 0. 042086 09 0. 001723 0. 004155 0. 004100 0. 010400 0. 001524 0. 012501 10 0. 025690 0. 099276 0. 031620 0. 045409 0. 040440 0. 068940 11 Total 1. 466693 1. 702768 2. 152964 1. 937681 1. 567449 1. 937634 Source: Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines 2000, NSCB. 07 0. 058268 0. 023337 0. 313948 0. 001075 0. 016836 0. 125663 1. 029063 0. 043095 0. 009477 0. 038087 1. 658849 08 0. 034172 0. 014104 0. 235991 0. 004210 0. 029420 0. 069130 0. 023819 1. 011000 0. 037840 0. 194950 1. 654636 09 0. 009747 0. 004625 0. 069402 0. 008938 0. 005641 0. 008494 0. 007558 0. 034009 1. 002549 0. 46345 1. 197308 10 0. 091426 0. 028537 0. 491699 0. 000990 0. 049594 0. 030003 0. 053011 0. 033758 0. 012004 1. 128216 1. 919238 11 0. 039646 0. 014503 0. 240350 0. 025834 0. 023496 0. 032847 0. 026221 0. 037171 0. 011392 0. 082168 1. 000000 1. 533628 10 6. 3 Output-to-Output Multiplier Effect In many instances, the impact on the economy comes from a change in output instead of a change in final demand. In this case, an output-to-output multiplier analysis is required. This gives us information that a one-peso or one-u nit change in the industry’s output will generate pesos worth of additional/incremental output in the economy. Table 5 shows the individual and total effects of a one-peso change in the output of a particular industry. Out of the 1. 92 multiplier for the Construction, the Construction, Manufacturing and the Transportation, Communication and Storage industries generated additional outputs of 1. 0, 0. 53, and 0. 10 respectively, for every peso change in the Construction output. 11 Table 5. Output-to-Output Impact Multipliers Code 01 02 03 04 01 1. 000000 0. 044302 0. 121698 0. 066146 02 0. 012239 1. 000000 0. 052357 0. 054753 03 0. 217842 0. 331802 1. 000000 0. 532212 04 0. 001773 0. 013318 0. 001321 1. 000000 05 0. 16934 0. 070706 0. 028148 0. 021145 06 0. 010470 0. 025814 0. 019863 0. 108005 07 0. 026070 0. 036751 0. 082136 0. 057702 08 0. 011907 0. 024993 0. 012882 0. 028128 09 0. 001553 0. 004021 0. 002553 0. 010324 10 0. 023155 0. 096070 0. 019690 0. 045076 11 Total 1. 321942 1. 647777 1. 340648 1. 923491 05 0. 027889 0. 079424 0. 217627 0. 002476 1. 000000 0. 019176 0. 038650 0. 007836 0. 001392 0. 036930 1. 431400 06 0. 070341 0. 029924 0. 559230 0. 002050 0. 022792 1. 000000 0. 056720 0. 040391 0. 011998 0. 066164 1. 859610 07 0. 056622 0. 022678 0. 305081 0. 001045 0. 016361 0. 122114 1. 000000 0. 041878 0. 09209 0. 037011 1. 611999 08 0. 033800 0. 013951 0. 233423 0. 004164 0. 029100 0. 068378 0. 023560 1. 000000 0. 037428 0. 192829 1. 636633 09 0. 009722 0. 004613 0. 069226 0. 008915 0. 005627 0. 008472 0. 007539 0. 033923 1. 000000 0. 046227 1. 194264 10 0. 081036 0. 025294 0. 435820 0. 000877 0. 043958 0. 026593 0. 046987 0. 029922 0. 010640 1. 000000 1. 701126 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 12 6. 4 Household Income Multiplier Effect Moreover, changes in an industry’s output can impact on household income. To quantitavely determine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income, a household income ultiplier analysis is needed. This tells us about the additional household income in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit cha nge in final demand for each industry. Table 6 shows the individual and total effect of a one-peso change in the final demand for each major industry. Private Services Industry is found to be the most important income generating sector with the highest income multiplier of 0. 39. This means that a peso increase in final demand of private services implies an increase in household income by 0. 39. For individual effects, additional household income of 0. 29, 0. 02 and 0. 4 are generated in the Private Services itself, Manufacturing, and the Agriculture, Fishery and Forestry respectively, due to a one-peso change in the final demand for Private Services. 13 Table 6. Household Income Multipliers. Code 01 02 03 04 01 0. 293397 0. 012106 0. 051681 0. 017621 02 0. 001810 0. 137770 0. 011210 0. 007354 03 0. 023844 0. 033825 0. 158427 0. 052891 04 0. 000478 0. 003347 0. 000516 0. 244972 05 0. 002275 0. 008849 0. 005475 0. 002580 06 0. 001532 0. 003519 0. 004207 0. 014351 07 0. 005075 0. 0066 64 0. 023145 0. 010200 08 0. 001846 0. 003608 0. 002890 0. 003959 09 0. 000043 0. 000104 0. 000102 0. 00259 10 0. 006621 0. 025587 0. 008150 0. 011704 11 Total 0. 336922 0. 235379 0. 265802 0. 365889 05 0. 008076 0. 011595 0. 023510 0. 000659 0. 132620 0. 002770 0. 007426 0. 001199 0. 000038 0. 010423 0. 198316 06 0. 019381 0. 004157 0. 057484 0. 000519 0. 002876 0. 137434 0. 010370 0. 005880 0. 000312 0. 017768 0. 256182 07 0. 015408 0. 003111 0. 030972 0. 000261 0. 002039 0. 016575 0. 180568 0. 006021 0. 000236 0. 009816 0. 265008 08 0. 009036 0. 001880 0. 023281 0. 001024 0. 003563 0. 009118 0. 004179 0. 141245 0. 000943 0. 050246 0. 244516 09 0. 002578 0. 000617 0. 006847 0. 002174 0. 000683 0. 001120 0. 001326 0. 04751 0. 024990 0. 011945 0. 057030 10 0. 024177 0. 003805 0. 048507 0. 000241 0. 006006 0. 003957 0. 009302 0. 004716 0. 000299 0. 290783 0. 391793 11 0. 010484 0. 001934 0. 023711 0. 006282 0. 002846 0. 004333 0. 004601 0. 005193 0. 000284 0. 021178 0. 080845 14 6. 5 Employment Multiplier Effect Changes in every industry’s output can impact on employment. To quantitavely determine the impact changes of output in an industry on employment, an employment multiplier analysis is done. This shows us the additional/incremental employment in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit change in each industry’s output. Given a 100 Billion peso increase in the investment, the number of additional employment generated can be estimated by employment multiplier. The result shows that the Private Services Industry has the highest employment multiplier effect of 572, 637 additional employment in the whole economy due to a 100 billion change in the final demand for Private Services. The second highest important sector in generating employment is the Trade (Wholesale and Retail) Industry with a multiplier effect of 504, 821 followed by the Manufacturing Industry with additional employment of 430, 785. 15 Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 Total Table 7. Employment Multiplier Effect Due to a 100 Billion Investment. 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 35,541 1,467 6,261 2,135 978 2,348 1,867 1,108 84,309 6,860 4,500 7,096 2,544 1,904 51,498 73,057 342,175 114,236 50,778 124,156 66,894 194 1,359 209 99,452 268 211 106 1,553 6,039 3,736 1,761 90,508 1,963 1,392 1,758 4,036 4,826 16,463 3,177 157,656 19,014 10,921 14,338 49,800 21,946 15,979 22,313 388,519 2,324 4,542 3,639 4,983 1,509 7,402 7,579 589 1,420 1,401 3,554 521 4,273 3,239 9,651 37,294 11,878 17,058 15,192 25,898 14,308 115,136 227,861 430,785 286,088 186,005 348,762 504,821 08 1,095 1,151 50,283 416 2,432 10,460 8,993 177,811 12,933 73,234 338,807 9 312 377 14,788 882 466 1,285 2,853 5,981 342,644 17,410 387,000 10 2,929 2,328 104,767 98 4,099 4,540 20,014 5,937 4,103 423,823 572,637 11 1,270 1,183 51,212 2,550 1,942 4,970 9,900 6,538 3,893 30,867 114,325 16 7. Conclusion and Recommendation This paper quantified the multipliers of the 11 major industries for the Philippine economy using in put-output technique. As the economic importance of the 11 major industries is growing among the policy makers and researchers, this study applied input-output technique to determine multipliers that will measure the significance of these industries in generating output, income and employment. The obtained multipliers showed that among major industries, the Manufacturing Industry showed the highest output multiplier; Construction Industry yielded the highest output-to-output multiplier; and Private Services Industry is found to have the highest income and employment multipliers. The results of the study will still have to be evaluated when the NSCB will release the latest I-O table. 8. Future Directions Since the study utilized a competitive type of I-O table wherein each cell element does not explicitly distinguish the domesticallyproduced from the imported, the study is bound to construct a noncompetitive or domestic type of IO table wherein the import content of each I-O transaction is netted out. After which, the Leontief inverse matrix will be re-estimated which will be used to calculate domestic multipliers for the major industries. This is important in order to be able to quantify correctly the impact of final demand on the various economic variables. 9. Appendices 9. Input-Output Analysis There are a number of methodologies developed to determine the multipliers. The most widely used approach is the input-output technique. The major strength of the input-output analysis is that it provides detailed information on the direct and indirect effects of spending on all economic measures for different industries in the 17 local economy (Loomis and Walsh, 1997). Th erefore, in order to satisfy the aforementioned objectives, the methodology employed in this paper in based on Leontief input-output techniques where structure of an economy is analyzed in terms of inter-relationships between economic sectors (e. . Miller and Blair, 1985). The inputoutput technique of a particular economy represents the flow of goods and services among its different industries for a particular time period. In the framework of the input-output technique, the relationships between economic sectors can be described in a system of linear equations where total output produced by each sector is either consumed as an intermediate input by other sector, or, sometimes internally by the producing sector itself, or, by the final demand sector, or both. The presentation of the flow of goods and services could be expressed either by physical units or in money terms. To define, let there be an economy with n-producing sectors and a final demand sector. Total output of sector i will be: Supply = Demand n Qi = ? qij + Fi j =1 (1) where Qi = gross output of industry i; qij = the sales of industry i to industry j; Fi = the final demand vector; i = 1, †¦, n. Let ij be the technical (input) coefficient which represents the amount (value) of sector i’s output needed to produce one unit (one peso) of sector j’s output; thus using the assumption of constant production coefficient, we get: a aij = qij Qi or qij = aij Q j This means that the total value of purchases of goods and services by sector j from sector i is aij Q j . Therefore, for a given target of final demand on goods and services, F, this relation defines how much each producing industry must produce in order to satisfy a particular bundle of final demand on goods and services, i. e. , Equation (1) in reduced matrix form can be written as: 18 Q = AQ + F Solving the Equation (2) can be found as: (2) (3) Q = [I ? A] F ? and [I ? A] is the total requirement matrix or mostly known as Leontief inverse matrix. ? In equation (3), Q is the output vector; I is an identity matrix The general solution of Equation (3) determines how much each industry of the economy must produce in order to satisfy a given level of final demand. It is mandatory that [I ? A] should be a equal to zero to have a unique solution in the form of [I ? A] . When ? non-singular matrix meaning that the determinant of [I ? A] does not the Leontief inverse matrix is assumed to be [I ? A]? = Z, then zij ’s stand for the elements of the Leontief inverse matrix. Each element of the Leontief inverse matrix shows the direct and indirect requirements of output sector i per unit of final demand. . 2 Output Multiplier The final demand-to-output multiplier is used to measure the impact of a change in final demand on the output of individual industries and the whole economy. This will tell us about the additional output generated in each industry given an impact increase in the investment in each industry (impact variable). An output multiplier for sector j is defined as the total value of pr oduction in all sectors of the economy that is necessary in order to satisfy a peso’s worth of final demand for sector j’s output. For the simple output multiplier, this total production is the direct and indirect output effect, obtained from a model in which households are exogenous. The initial output effect on the economy is defined to be simply the initial peso’s worth of sector j output needed to satisfy the additional final demand. Then formally, the output multiplier is the ratio of the direct and indirect effect to the initial effect alone. 19 The output multiplier measures the sum of direct and indirect output requirements from all sectors needed to deliver one additional peso of output of i industry to final demand. It is derived by summing the zij ’s or the entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables. Although the output multiplier represents total requirements per unit of final output, it is not particularly useful concept except as indicator of the degree of structural interdependence between each sector and the rest of the economy. In economic impact studies we are more usually concerned with income or employment generating effects, and these require income or employment multipliers. 9. 3 Income Multiplier Changes in an ndustry’s output can impact on household income. To quantitatively determine the impact of changes in each industry’s output on household income, a household income multiplier analysis is needed. This tells us about the additional household income in the whole economy due to a one-peso or one-unit change in final demand for each industry. The income multiplier is obtained by multiplying the row vector of income coefficient s, say e with the zij ’s, which are entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables. Row vector of income coefficients or e are referred to as salaries and wages (compensation) for each industry divided by the corresponding output. This gives us the following equation for income multiplier: ? ? I = e[I ? A] 9. 4 Employment Multiplier ? ?1 (4) Impact analyses are frequently preoccupied with employmentcreating effects of industrial expansion, because policymakers may be primarily and legitimately concerned in forecasting jobs in a particular area. For this reason, it is often useful to be able to derive not only income multipliers from an I-O model, but as well as employment multipliers. 20 The following method was used to estimate employment multipliers. The employment coefficients, l , defined as employment per million pesos of outputs, was multiplied by the zij ’s, which are entries in the column under industry i in the Leontief inverse matrix tables, in order to obtain the multiplier. Mathematically, employment multi ? plier is expressed as follows: L = l [I ? A] 10. References ? ?1 (5) Miller, Ronald E. and Blair, Peter D. Input-Output Analysis: Foundations and Extensions. Englewoods Cliffs, N. J. Prentice Hall 1985. Thijs Ten Raa. The Economics of Input-Output Analysis. Cambridge University Press 2005. National Statistical Coordination Board. The 2000 Input-Output Accounts of the Philippines. Economics Statistics Office 2000. National Statistics Office. 2000 Census of Philippine Business and Industry. Presentation Material of Dr. Cid L. Terosa, UA&P Professor. 21

Accounting Software Installation Project

The Accounting Software Installation Project (from Larson, E. E. , and Gray, C. F. , 2011 Project Management – the managerial process, fifth edition p441) Sitting in her office, Karin Chung is reviewing the past four months of the large corporate accounting software installation project she has been managing. Everything seemed so well planned before the project started. Each company division had a task force that provided input into the proposed installation along with potential problems. All the different divisions had been trained and briefed on exactly how their division would interface and use the forthcoming accounting software.All six contractors, which included one of the Big Five consulting companies, assisted in developing the work breakdown structure—costs, specifications, time. Karin hired a consultant to conduct a one-day â€Å"partnering† workshop attended by the major accounting heads, a member of each task force group, and key representatives from each of the contractors. During the workshop, several different team-building exercises were used to illustrate the importance of collaboration and effective communication. Everyone laughed when Karin fell into an imaginary acid pit during a human bridge-building exercise.The workshop ended on an upbeat note with everyone signing a partnering charter that expressed their commitment to working together as partners to complete the project. TWO MONTHS LATER One task force member came to Karin to complain that the contractor dealing with billing would not listen to his concerns about problems that could occur in the Virginia division when billings are consolidated. The contractor had told him, the task force member, he had bigger problems than consolidation of billing in the Virginia division.Karin replied, â€Å"You can settle the problem with the contractor. Go to him and explain how serious your problem is and that it will have to be settled before the project is completed. † Later in the week in the lunchroom she overheard one consulting contractor bad-mouthing the work of another—â€Å"never on time, interface coding not tested. † In the hallway the same day an accounting department supervisor told her that tests showed the new software will never be compatible with the Georgia division’s accounting practices.While concerned, Karin considered these problems typical of the kind she had encountered on other smaller software projects. Case FOUR MONTHS LATER The project seemed to be falling apart. What happened to the positive attitude fostered at the team-building workshop? One contractor wrote a formal letter complaining that another contractor was sitting on a coding decision that was delaying their work. The letter went on: â€Å"We cannot be held responsible or liable for delays caused by others. The project was already two months behind, so problems were becoming very real and serious. Karin finally decided to call a meeting of all parties to the project and partnering agreement. She began by asking for problems people were encountering while working on the project. Although participants were reluctant to be first for fear of being perceived as a complainer, it was not long before accusations and tempers flared out of control. It was always some group complaining about another group.Several participants complained that others were sitting on decisions that resulted in their work being held up. One consultant said, â€Å"It is impossible to tell who’s in charge of what. † Another participant complained that although the group met separately on small problems, it never met as a total group to assess new risk situations that developed. Karin felt the meeting had degenerated into an unrecoverable situation. Commitment to the project and partnering appeared to be waning. She quickly decided to stop the meeting and cool things down.She spoke to the project stakeholders: â€Å"It is clear that we h ave some serious problems, and the project is in jeopardy. The project must get back on track, and the backbiting must stop. I want each of us to come to a meeting Friday morning with concrete suggestions of what it will take to get the project back on track and specific actions of how we can make it happen. We need to recognize our mutual interdependence and bring our relationships with each other back to a win/win environment. When we do get things back on track, we need to figure out how to stay on track. †

4 P in marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

4 P in marketing - Essay Example Brand equity is assets that are linked to a brand's name and symbol that adds to the value provided by a product or service to a firm and the customers of that firm.Those assets are generally brand awareness, loyalty, association with the brand and perceived quality value. Brand Equity is the value in the product that is carried through arising out of consumers' choice of that product. Brand image and awareness contribute to the brand equity when consumers have strong belief about that brand and become associated with it as natural and friendly users. Cauvin. blogspot With a view to restore the confidence and trust of UK investors who faced great losses during last credit crisis on account of the sub prime lending and failure of Northern Rock Bank, DREAM HOME fund will been launched in UK for the portfolio of JP Morgan.The main feature of the fund is to invest fund money in govt backed securities and real estate funds in foreign real estate trusts in emerging markets to get security, trust, and good returns. The fund will be of medium duration and enable UK investors to finance their dream homes for their young children when they grow matured. DREAM HOME Investment will position itself in the market to exhibit its strength to park their funds in good and strong portfolio to make it derive good returns with security. The required security will be possible by investments in Municipal bond, other bonds, government securities, gilds. Tax exempt instruments will be preferred. With this view DREAM HOME investment will provide higher interest rate thanks to its investment in high yielding portfolio. Investment in Indian real estate industry, which is thriving now, will provide the image of higher return yielding funds. Sam Fleming, November 1,2007, Daily Mail, Credit crisis 'could cripple UK economy' www.governmentbusiness.co.uk /content/view/2069/1) visited 0n 17th Nov.09 In Money market funds, returns on investment are very important factor to judge the credibility of the fund. A good and successful money market fund can deliver returns of around 7% per month and around 30% on annual basis. An Australian dollar fund managed by UBS Global Asset Management firm returned 6.9% on month basis and 29.7% on annual basis. On the opposite the Santander's money market fund returned a low 0.27% monthly return in Sept 09. The fund will get the support from the strong brand equity of JP Morgan. To build up further brand equity the product safety and investment security will help. The promotion of the fund will be done through websites and search engine support. The existing channel of distribution will support in promoting the product to wide range UK market. The target market will be mainly those who have burnt their fingers in the last Northern Rock debacle but yet ready to have a home for their dear children. Trust Home will be positioned in that segment to ca sh their sentiment. Brand equity is not made in a day or two. A strong marketing plan ie the most essential for creating strong brand equity. Understanding the market, locating the unattended segment that is unsatisfied or require proper servicing not done before is a must. Attending the unsatisfied investors in UK who neither could nor fulfill their dream home because of high prices or foreclosure will get a new opportunity to do that. Next task important towards building the brand equity of dream Home is to provide a solid background and opportunity to get their dream homes financed at the right time which is not present now because of the deteriorating real estate market but later in future. At present many people have lost their money. They will be able to save for the dream home tomorrow. The Dream Home fund will finance the balance amount after say 10 years for the home for the children. A vital part of their sentiment to gift a home to their children at the most opportune time when the present

Ch. 15 From the earliest art to the Bronze age Essay - 1

Ch. 15 From the earliest art to the Bronze age - Essay Example The Peliolithic era coincided with Stone Age just before man starting herding and practicing agriculture. Other art forms that were evident in the early Neolithic era were pottery and the construction of megalith and sculpture (Emeritus, Preble and Frank 240-245). In addition, the chapter focuses on Venus of Willendorf, which has also been referred to as the Woman of willendorf. Made between 25,000 and 28,000 BCE, the Woman of Willendorf is the earliest female figure made by humans and was estimated to be about 11.1 centimeter high. The statuette was found by workman Johann Veran in 1908, during an excavation that was conducted by several archaeologists, including Hugo Orbermaier. The statuette was found in Paleolitihic site which was within the vicinity of Willendorf, a small village that was located in Austria. The chapter reveals that the Woman of Willendorf statuette was curved from oolistic limestone which, the archaeologist discovered that it was not from the local area. The statuette also had red orchre tints on its surface. The Woman of Willendorf was seen as a Great Woman Goddess and, the statuette was used by the local people for religious purposes (Emeritus, Preble and Frank 245-246). The art displayed in the Iranian western plateau was temples of massive structures which were constructed in the valley of Mesopotamia. These structures took after the shape of terraced-step pyramids; each of the terraces represented a level that carried stories of the people residing near the plateaus. In fact, the terraces represented the hierarchy on gods at different platforms, and they were erected at the centre of each city, state, taking the shape of the rectangle. It is believed that Ziggurats had a possible inspiration in the construction of the biblical story. The Ziggurats embodied the idea of the â€Å"sacred mountains† that acted as a connection between the heaven and

Infertility and Public Health Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Infertility and Public Health - Essay Example First of all, family members are less likely to ask uncomfortable questions at family social functions if they know that a couple is having trouble conceiving. Second, friends and family can better understand the tendency not to attend baby-related parties or gatherings if they know about the infertility. Gurevich (2008, pg. 1) claims that, "Perhaps the number one benefit of sharing is getting support. When you feel ill from some fertility medication you're taking, or down when your period comes and you have another negative pregnancy test, being able to call up your sister, cousin, or friend can really help." In this particular case, the couple is suffering from some of the pitfalls that can occur when a couple decides to tell their friends and family about their infertility problems. Their family wants to be helpful, but they are not exactly sure how to do so. They are reacting the best way they know how, but it is making the couple uncomfortable. The family members are trying to 'fix' the problem, but the advice is not based on sound medical research. Trying to tell family and friends can also result in blaming or causing extreme discomfort any time the subject of babies is brought up. As an infertility counselor, I would make three suggestions to the couple regarding this situation.

Literary Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Literary Analysis - Essay Example The plot describes her character since the death f her father. Emily is described as a society monument. Her significance in this particular society was generated from her father’s participation in the civil war. However, Emily portrayed negative behavior as her father died. She stayed from the society for along time staying confined in her house. She later interacted with the society and fell in lover with a mason, Holmer. Her wish to be married to him was dashed as she went back to her confinement behavior. At one time in the novel, she bought a bottle of poison which she was believed to poison herself with. However, this took long that expected. Her confinement from the society enabled her to be secretive till her death. After her death, the society also realized that she was also involved in the death of Holmer after his body was found in her apartment (Ruthmann 33). The reviewing the use of figurative use in the novel, the character of Emily is rampantly represented. Her versatile characterization enabled the author to represent her in more that one figurative speech. The figurative perception was also based on the perception towards her. One significant figurative representation of Emily was her reference to as a society monument after her death. ... Her personality was compared to that of men and men in the novel valued her character. In this regard, her personality was a unique feature among women in the society. Using a figurative explanation of her character, the author referred to her as a man. Holmer pointed out that he would not be married to a man (Morton 23). Referring her to a man was based on her strong personality and character. In an argument by Ruthmann the referring to Emily as a man by Holmer is a symbolic way in which portrays the strong character of Emily (56). Additionally, in regards to Emily’s character women in the novel setting were afraid of confronting her as they used to consult the police or authorities to intervene in case an issue arises. This symbolically portrays the strength and significant perception of Emily. Additionally, Emily’s family was a symbolic representation of the strong personality she possessed. The significance of this figurative display of Emily’s character play ed a crucial role in the in the novel. The plot of the novel required a strong feminine figure that would represent the preferred feminine character by the author. In terms of forecasting the events in the novel, Emily’s figurative representation of her character was significant. For instance, when she purchased a drug the community was certain she had a negative idea in her mind in regards to the drug. The mood in the novel also revolves around the character representation of Emily. The turnout at Emily’s burial ceremony was a figurative representation of her significance in this particular society. The burial ceremony experienced a huge turnout as men and women from all social classes attended her burial. Emily was a controversial figure in the society but she

The Failing Popularity of Jimmy Carter Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Failing Popularity of Jimmy Carter - Essay Example Divisions in the Democratic Party arose over the direction of domestic policy and split party unity. A divisive Democratic primary between Carter and challenger Ted Kennedy (Dem, MA.) left the campaign in disarray. According to Hamilton Jordan, Carter's chief political advisor, the Democratic outlook was "...not enhanced or strengthened by the contest, but damaged severely" (qtd. in Biven). Yet, against this backdrop of failure and frustration, even darker clouds had gathered. By July 1980, Carter's approval rating had dropped to 21%, lower than Richard Nixon's at the time of his resignation. This dramatic drop was precipitated by two key events. America's runaway inflation and the Iran hostage ordeal had taken a heavy toll on America's confidence in the Carter presidency. There is an old political saying that says Americans vote with their pocketbooks. This was certainly true in the 1980 reelection bid of Jimmy Carter. Rampant inflation had severely reduced wage earners purchasing power throughout the Carter years. Carter opposed Gerald Ford in the presidential race of 1976 during one of our history's greatest economic slumps. During the campaign Carter had criticized Ford for his inability to deal with inflation and unemployment. When Carter was inaugurated in 1977, the country was beginning to show some signs of improvement. However, after four years of Carter's administration inflation had risen from 4.8% in 1976 to 12% at the time of the 1980 election (Huckshorn). Inflation, the public's measure of the economy, was rooted in Carter's inability to deal with major economic issues. Carter, had a long-term vision for energy policy, but was ineffective at dealing with America's immediate need for oil during his short term as President. OPEC's tight control of the oil market had boosted prices and in the period from 1978 to1979 oil prices nearly doubled (Williams). Not coincidentally the national deficit was also rising at record rates. America's debt resulted in further erosion of the dollar on the international market. These economic forces conspired to send inflation to a lofty 20% in January and February of 1980 (Biven). Though consumers probably suffered less than was conventionally believed, the overriding shadow of the double-digit inflation rate in the daily papers dashed any hope Carter had for reelection. While faced with growing domestic discontent, Carter was presented with what became the most overpowering and difficult problem of his presidency, the Iranian hostage crises. In November 1979, militant Iranian students took control of the American Embassy in Tehran and took American diplomats and others hostage while demanding the return of the previously overthrown Shah .The hostages were released in January 1981, after being held for 444 days, but the damage to Carter had already been done. The fate of the hostages and the ever-present news broadcasts magnified the inability of the Carter administration's incompetence in handling the crisis. A failed rescue attempt and general frustration added to the public's eroding approval of the President's performance. Carter's popularity continued downward as the election was held and Carter was handed defeat at the hands of Ronald Reagan. Carter's administration was working behind the scenes to free the hostages,

Session Hijacking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Session Hijacking - Essay Example There are two types of attacks in session hijacking namely; the active and passive attack. In active attack, the hacker identifies a session that is active and takes over by force by forcing one member to be inactive (offline). In passive attack, there is hijacking of a session by a hacker who remains inactive and observes information being transmitted from and to the computers. The attack strategy known as the denial of service is used as a common component in these attacks to either crash it or jamming its network connection. In some instances a hybrid method of attack exists which the hacker may either watch an active session for sometime before taking over or the attacker may decide to inactively watch a session for sometime before becoming active and hijacking it (Hope & Walther, 2008). Another form of the hybrid method is where one watches a session and introduces data into the session that is active periodically with no intentions of hijacking the session In perpetrating a session hijack, four methods are used. These are session fixation, session side jacking, and cross-side scripting. In session fixation, the attacker sets the id of the user’s session to another one, which is known to him. For instance, he can send an email to the user containing a link that has an id of a particular session and wait for the user to log in.

Functions of Management Essay Example for Free

Functions of Management Essay Great managers are fair and respectful to employees. They don’t ask employees to do anything they would not do themselves. They show up on time, and they are a good role model who leads by example. Great managers are honest and accept their faults, and they are able to publicly admit when they are wrong. Great manager is someone who is a good listener and is proactive in dealing with issues and not afraid to get in the trenches with his or her coworkers. A great manager leads workers, but at the same time does not generate resentment by being too bossy. A great manager builds close connections with the people they supervise. A great manager recognizes employees for their contributions at work. This is one of the surest ways to secure employee loyalty and earn the perception that you are smart enough to understand that you don’t know everything. Recognition and rewards do not typically need to be monetary. In most cases, simple public recognition is all that is required. Recognition nurtures the soul, it feels good, and it stimulates a desire to repeat positive behavior at work. great manager is approachable and possesses a likeable personality. Moreover, a great manager has a sense of humor about the world and themselves. And a great manager understands that they need to manage systems, but more importantly they need to manage the way they relate to their employees. I haven’t seen nor work for an ineffective manager. An ineffective manager can make workers of all levels miserable, which can result in low employee morale, stress, and turnover. Why are some managers ineffective? It could be because these managers define themselves only as a manager, and not also as a leader because managers try to plan, organize, and coordinate, and leaders aim to inspire and motivate. They may view leadership and management as two different entities, when in reality leadership and management need to go hand-in-hand. The management does meaningful work in a culture of respect, camaraderie and teamwork. They begin by analyzing the culture to establish a benchmark, then measure progress regularly. Determine what matters most to your employees; Meaningful work, Recognition, Respect for management, Communications, and Empowerment. Acknowledging individual differences, they maximize individual strengths. They commit to continuous improvement. Management must place as high a priority on employee satisfaction as it does on customer satisfaction, quality, financials and other strategic performance measures.

Interpersonal and written communication techniques Essay Example for Free

Interpersonal and written communication techniques Essay Lip-reading: One skill that I have not fully develop to make me more employable in the I.T industry is the lip reading technique. Lip reading is the movement of lips and tongue; body language and facial expressions add to this technique, as it helps you to lip read better. With this technique I learnt that you have to look at the way a person stresses their speech, the rhythm and phrasing when trying to lip read. A good thing that I find about lip reading is that it provides a method of communication for deafened people. However, I found it quite difficult to lip read, because you have to pay full attention and look at lip shape and movement at all times, preventing me from concentrating. This technique is useful because it is a means of communication for the severely or totally deafened people. I also found this technique difficult to use because not all words are easy to read, some people mumble or even covered their hands when they were talking. This prevented me to lip read exactly what they say. I can further improve on this technique, by practising it over and over again, as it takes time and patience. Through this I will also be improving my confidence and strengthening my communication ability. Body language: I have developed my method of body language to make myself more employable to the i.t industry. Body language is the non-verbal signals as a method of communication through stance, gestures, facial expression etc. It also builds better relationships at home or at school. Some people may find it difficult to use body language in order to communicate, because they might find it hard to understand their gestures or facial expressions to convey what they are trying to say. This technique is useful and important in order to send the right message and to be able to read the signals the other person is sending back. Spoken communication is essential, as well as body language and facial expressions. By giving of natural body language, you are  showing that you are paying complete attention to what the employer is saying. Barriers to communication: I have develop the skill of barriers to communications. I developed this by making sure that I did not make the audience bored with my presentation. I did this by projecting my voice, so that it was loud and clear for the audience to hear and understand. Also, I made sure that my mobile phone was switched off, to avoid any distractions whilst presenting my presentation. This is a good skill to have because when communicating because when in a Conversation you are showing that you are paying full attention to everything they are saying. Positive language: I have developed the skill of using positive gesture. For example, having a smile on my face can make the other person feel more comfortable with what they are trying to say. I have also been using a genuine, formal tone of voice when addressing my peers, which makes me come across as someone with a positive attitude. I used ‘nodding’ as a form of positive language when someone was talking or explaining something to me. This shows that I am in agreement with what they are trying to say. In some conversations I may have summarised what they said to show that I have been listening to what they have said. Negative language: I have developed the skill to avoid using negative language with the improvement in my positive language. The use of negative language when communication with another person can make them feel really uncomfortable, this may also make them not want to talk to you. I stopped using negative facial expressions, to make myself come across more positively than negatively. I respond to people even if I have no interest in what they are saying. Types of questions: This is one of the skills that I have not improved on. I don’t tend to ask open questions when in a conversation. When I am not interested in a conversation I tend to either say ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to questions. This stops the conversation from flowing and shows my lack of interest. This technique can be improved/developed by avoiding the use of closed questions, because it  may show that you don’t want to be a part of that particular conversation and want it to end by giving dull replies. Speed of response: The speed of response technique depends on what the question or conversation is about. There may be some questions that I might be asked that require time to think to be able to give a clear respond to what they have asked. However, in some particular conversations my speed of response is quite fast, because I am aware of what to say. So, my speed of response depends completely on what the conversation or questions are about. Written communication skills: Capitalisation: A skills that I have improved in written communication is capitalisation. I have improved on this skill by always ensuring that I always use capital letters when writing a letter or important emails as it is essential and makes the letter or email look more professional. Capital letters are use at the start of sentences, names and country names. They are also used abbreviations for UK, USA etc. The idea of capitalisation is to make sure your sentences are clear. They can also be used for emphasis, you could capitalise words within your work and in order to emphasise your opinion. It may be difficult to read over your work to check that you have added capital letters if you are in a rush. Structure: One of the skills that I have not developed in written communication is structure, because I find it time consuming to structure a piece of writing. However, it is important to structure your piece of writing so that it makes sense. You will be able to order your writing in order of importance. Ordering your writing is important, because the reader may not understand your writing. I can further improve on this skills by making sure that I order and structure my work neatly as I go along, instead of leaving to the end, which makes it more time consuming. If I don’t do this then I am making it more difficult for myself trying to figure out what I have written. Smileys: I have improved on this skills, because I am able to use smileys and  emotions, which makes the conversation flow more effectively. However they are only used informally and not it letters. They can change the mood of you’re writing to show what mood you are in. It is also easier to get messages across to the other person. It is easier to show excitement or sarcasm with the use of emotions. They can also be used for advertisements, which can make the poster look more interesting and can easily grab the reader’s attention. However, they are not to be used in letters or in important emails, as it might give a bad impression of you, and you may not be taken seriously. Therefore, it is important to improve on this technique, as you should be aware of when you should or should not use these informal methods of communicating. Proof reading/spelling/grammar: I have not improved on the technique of proof reading my spelling and grammar after writing a letter or email. I think it would be important to improve on this technique as my letter would look more professional. Sending a letter or email that has poor spelling and poor use of grammar, shows your lack of interest and you will not be taken seriously. I can further improve on this technique by taking time out to proof read my work before sending it out. Proof reading my work can make a huge difference, because I will be taken more seriously if my letter is written in a more professional manner. Alternative viewpoints: I have not improved on the technique of giving or taking on board alternative viewpoints. I think it is a good idea to maybe take on board alternative viewpoints given to me by other people, so that I try more than one way of dong certain tasks. I think I can improve on this technique by giving other people my alternative viewpoints. In this way it shows that I have been listening to what the other person has been saying. By taking on board other the viewpoints of other people will help me to improve on my work. However, it may be difficult to grasp, because I rarely ever take on alternative viewpoints. Note taking: I have improved on the technique of note taking since September. I have improved on this skill, as I had started to take notes of important topics discussed during class discussions. Also I have started to highlight the key  facts on the hand-outs that were given to me. So that I focus mainly on the key points. This made it easier for me when it came to revision, because I knew exactly what I had to revise on for the exam. I also annotated the points on the hand outs, so that I am aware of what it means when I come to revise on that topic, as I am able to clearly understand it with extra detail. Guidelines: I have improved on the technique of using guidelines when doing my work. In September when starting my ict btec course, I downloaded the assignment brief for each unit. I always had the assignment brief out whenever I did a task, to help me understand what I have got to do to achieve the task clearly with step to step instructions given of everything I need to add in order to pass the task. Having improved on this technique was useful, because it gave me extra information of what the course is about, the deadlines for each task etc. Using the assignment brief made me more independent as I didn’t need to constantly ask my teacher for help.

Crystal Growth and Nonlinear Optics

Crystal Growth and Nonlinear Optics CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO CRYSTAL GROWTH AND NONLINEAR OPTICS 1.1  INTRODUCTION Crystal growth is regarded as an ancient subject, owing to the fact that the crystallization of salt and sugar were known to the ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations. The subject of crystal growth was treated as part of crystallography and never had an independent identity until the last century. It has a long history of evolution from â€Å"a substance potting art† to a science in its own right which has accelerated by the invention of transistor in 1948, and the subsequent need for high purity semiconductor single crystals. Crystals are the unacknowledged pillars of modern technology. The fundamentals of crystal growth was entirely bestowed upon the morphological studies of the naturally occurring crystals. Thus began the scientific approach for this subject during the seventeenth century by Kepler, followed by quite a few others like Nicolous Steno, Descartes, Bartholinus, etc. This type of morphological study slowly led to the understanding of the atomistic process of crystal growth. Recent bursting research on nanostructured materials depend on the crystal growth theory and technology. In the early twentieth century, the crystal growth evolved as a separate branch of science and several theories from Kossel, Donnay-Harker, Volmer and Burton, Cabrera and Frank (BCF) were proposed. Although science of crystal growth originated through the explanations of Nicolous Steno in 1669, the actual impetus to this field began after the BCF theory was formulated and also when there was a great demand for crystals during World War II. Crystal growth plays an important role in material science and engineering. It is an interdisciplinary subject of physics and chemistry. Initially the natural crystals were adored as gems and museum pieces. Later, a transition of crystals has occurred from museum to technology which stimulated crystal grower community to produce large crystals artificially. In the recent scientific era, the utility of crystals has been extended to novel devices such as nonlinear optical and piezoelectric devices. Atomic arrangement with periodicity in three dimensional pattern at equally repeated distances are called single crystals. The preparation of single crystal is more difficult than polycrystalline material and extra effort is justified because of outstanding properties of single crystals (Laudise 1970). The single crystal growth has prominent role in the present era because of rapid technical and scientific advancement. The application of crystals has unbounded limits because of its special optical and electrical properties over noncrystalline material. This means that the new crystals have to be grown and fabricated in order to assess their device properties. The main parameters which involve in crystal growth are nucleation, growth rate, stability, crystalline defects, compositional inhomogeneity and thermodynamics of the source of liquid. The evolution in the crystal growth requires not only scientific understanding, but also the driving force of applied technology which so often provides a significant influence in highlighting the lack of scientific knowledge and need for a more refined evolution of science and indeed the development of new concepts. The studies on the growth and physical properties of single crystals of amino acids and their compounds are of great interest because they possess properties such as piezoelectricity, pyroelectricity and possibly ferroelectricity. In the recent century, the development of science in many areas has been achieved through the growth of single crystals. The single crystals designed for producing second harmonic generation (SHG) received consistent attention for applications in the field of telecommunication, optical information processing, laser remote sensing and colour displays. 1.2  KINETICS OF CRYSTAL GROWTH Crystals are solid substances in general which may be obtained from solid, liquid or vapour phase. Except for solid phase, all other phases yield crystals with developed faces, which represent the crystal medium interface during the development of a crystal from the growth medium. Subsequently, the crystal faces contain information about the nature of the interfaces as well as about the phenomena taking place at the interface. In solid phase growth, some grains grow larger at the expense of others and the interface mainly concave with respect to the growing grain and lies in the interior of the bulk mass. In melt growth, the interface is forced to take the shape of the isotherm inside the crucible containing the melt. However, in both cases, a free development of the faces is rarely encountered. It is also possible to obtain valuable information about the growth processes by using suitable methods. Elementary processes involved in the development of the micromorphology of as grown surfaces of bulk single crystal and epitaxial layers, and of evaporated and etched surfaces under different experimental conditions are essentially similar irrespective of the type of a material. When a crystal nucleus attains a critical size, then it grows into crystal of macroscopic dimension with well developed faces. Several theories have been proposed to explain the mechanism of crystal growth. They are: Surface energy theory, Adsorption layer theory and Diffusion theory. The surface energy theory states that the growing crystal assumes a shape, which has a minimum surface energy. According to adsorption layer theory, a molecule arriving at a crystal surface from the bulk of the supersaturated solution or super cooled melt loses a part of its latent heat. All molecules similar to this move along the surface and join together to form a small two dimensional nucleus due to inelastic collision. Bravious proposed that the growth rate of a crystal face depends on reticular densities of a lattice point of that face. The surface energy is the least when the face possesses the greatest reticular density. The attachment energy is due to Vander Waals force in the case of homopolar crystals and it is due to electrostatic forces in the case of ionic crystals. According to the diffusion theory matter is deposited continuously on a crystal phase at the rate proportional to the difference in concentration between the point of deposition and the bulk of the solution. In diffusion theory, the molecules in contact with the crystal surface are adsorbed quickly. A concentration gradient is thus produced between the bulk of the solution and the growing crystal surface. The mass transfer from the bulk of the solution to the surface involves molecular diffusion. In general, in any crystal growth process, the following steps are involved: (i) Generation of reactants (ii) Transport of reactants to the growth surface (iii) Adsorption at the growth surface (iv) Nucleation (v) Growth and (vi) Removal of unwanted reaction products from the growth surface 1.2.1  Solution, Solubility and Super Solubility A solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute in a solvent. Solute is a component, which is present in a smaller quantity. For a given solute, there may be different solvents. The solvent is chosen taking into account of the following factors to grow crystals from solution: (i) Good solubility for the given solute (ii) Good temperature coefficient of solute solubility Less viscosity (iv) Less volatility (v) Less corrosion and non toxicity (vi) Low vapour pressure and (vii) Cost advantage Solubility of the material in a solvent decides the amount of the material, which is available for the growth and hence defines the total size limit. Solubility gradient is another important parameter, which dictates the growth procedure. If the solubility gradient is very small, slow evaporation of the solvent is the best option for crystal growth in order to maintain a constant supersaturation in the solution. Growth of crystals from solution is mainly a diffusion-controlled process. The medium must be viscous enough to enable faster transference of the growth units from the bulk solution by diffusion. Hence, a solvent with less viscosity is preferable. Supersaturation is an important parameter for the solution growth process. The crystal grows by the access of the solute in the solution where the degree of supersaturation is maintained. The solubility data at various temperatures are essential to determine the level of supersaturation. Hence, the solubility of the solute in the ch osen solvent must be determined before starting the growth process. The relationship between the equilibrium concentrations as a function of temperature is represented by the solubility diagram in Figure 1.1 which is known as temperature-concentration diagram. Miers carried out extensive research in the relationship between supersaturation and spontaneous crystallization. The lower continuous line is the normal solubility curve for the salt concerned. Temperature and concentration at which spontaneous crystallization occurs are represented by the upper broken curve, generally referred to as the supersolubility curve. The whole concentration-temperature field is separated by the saturated solution line (solubility curve) into two regions, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions. Saturated solutions are those mixtures, which can retain their equilibrium indefinitely in contact with the solid phase with respect to which they are saturated. The solubility of most substances increase with temperature (the temperature coefficient of the solubility is posi tive) and crystals can be grown only from supersaturated solutions, which contain an excess of the solute above the equilibrium value. The temperature-concentration diagram is divided into three regions, which are termed as region I, II and III respectively. Figure 1.1 Miers solubility curve (i)The stable (undersaturated) zone where crystallization is not possible (Region I). (ii)The region II is a metastable zone, between the solubility and supersolubility curves, where spontaneous crystallization is improbable. However, if a seed crystal is placed in metastable solution, growth would occur on it. (iii)The region III is an unstable or labile (supersaturation) zone, where spontaneous crystallization is more probable. If the solution whose concentration and temperature represented by point A in the Figure. 1.1, is cooled without loss of solvent (Line ABC) spontaneous crystallization cannot occur until conditions represented by point C are reached. At this point, crystallization is spontaneous. Further cooling to some point D will produce spurious nucleation. The evaporation of solvent from the solution results in supersaturation. The line AB’C’ represents an operation carried out at constant temperature. Penetration beyond the supersolubility curve into the labile zone rarely happens, as the surface from which evaporation takes place is usually supersaturated to a greater degree than the bulk of solution. Crystals, which appear on this surface eventually fall into the solution and seed in it. In practice, a combination of cooling and evaporation as represented by the line AB†C† is also adopted. 1.2.2  Expression for Supersaturation In order to grow crystals, the solution must be supersaturated. Supersaturation is the driving force, which governs the rate of crystal growth. The supersaturation of a system may be expressed in number of ways. The basic units of concentration as well as temperature must be specified. The degree of supersaturation of a solution is defined using the concept of absolute supersaturation (1.1) where C is the concentration of the dissolved substance at a given moment and Co is its solubility limit. The degree of supersaturation can also be defined as the relative supersaturation, which is given by (1.2) or as the coefficient of supersaturation. (1.3) The quantities ÃŽ ±, ÃŽ ² and à Ã¢â‚¬Å" are interrelated (Khamshii 1969) 1.3  NUCLEATION In a supersaturated or super cooled system, few atoms or molecules join together and a change in energy takes place during the formation of clusters. The cluster of atoms or molecules is called embryo. An embryo may grow or disintegrate and disappear completely. If the embryo grows to a particular size, critical size known as critical nucleus, then there is a tendency for the nucleus to grow. Thus, nucleation is an important phenomenon in crystal growth and is the precursor of crystal growth and of the overall crystallization process. The formation of stable nucleus occurs only by the addition of a number of molecules (A1) until a critical cluster is formed. In general A n-1 + A 1 → A n (Critical) (1.4) Any further addition to the critical nucleus results in nucleation followed by growth. Once these nucleus grow beyond a certain size, they become stable under the average condition of supersaturation of the solution. Further, the creation of a new phase in the homogeneous solution demands for the expenditure of certain quantity of energy. Once embryos achieve this critical size there is a high probability that they will grow, relatively unhindered, to macroscopic size. 1.3.1  Types of Nucleation Nucleation may occur spontaneously or may be induced artificially. These two cases are frequently referred to as homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation respectively. The term primary will be reserved for both the cases of nucleation in the systems that do not contain crystalline matter. On the other hand, the nucleus is often generated in the vicinity of crystals presented in the supersaturated system. This phenomenon is referred to as secondary nucleation. Figure 1.2 shows the classification of nucleation. The spontaneous formation of crystalline nucleus in the interior of the parent phase is called homogeneous nucleation. If the nucleus forms heterogeneously around ions, impurity molecules or on dust particles, on surfaces or at structural irrgularities such as dislocations or other imperfections is called heterogeneous nucleation. Figure 1.2 Schematic diagram indicating the classification of nucleation Nucleation can often be induced by external processes like agitation, friction, mechanical shock, electromagnetic fields, extreme pressure, ultraviolet, X-rays, ÃŽ ³Ã¢â‚¬â€œ rays, sonic and ultrasonic radiation and so on (Mullin 2001; Laudise 1975; Gilman 1963; Stringfellow 1979; Sangwal 1987; Jancic Grootscholten 1984). 1.3.2  Energy of formation of a nucleus Any isolated droplet of a fluid is most stable when its free energy is maximum and thus its area is minimum. The growth of an embryo or a crystal could be considered as an example of this principle. The total energy of the crystal in equilibrium with its surrounding at constant temperature and pressure would be minimum for a given volume. When a volume free energy per unit volume is considered to be constant ÃŽ £ai ÏÆ'i = minimum (1.5) whereai is area of ith face and ÏÆ'i is surface energy per unit area Thus considering the nucleus to be spherical, the energy of formation of the nucleus is determined. 1.3.3  Energy of Formation of Spherical Nucleus The formation of a droplet nucleus due to supersaturation of vapour demands the expenditure of a certain quantity of energy in the creation of new phase. Therefore the total free energy change associated with the formation of homogeneous nucleation may be considered as follows. Let ΔG be the overall excess free energy of the embryo between the two phases. Since the volume and surface free energies, the total free energy associated with the process can be written as ΔG = ΔG S + ΔG V (1.6) where ΔGS is the surface free energy change and ΔGV is the volume free energy change. For a spherical nucleus of radius r, ΔG = Ï€r3 ΔG V + 4 Ï€r2ÃŽ ³ (1.7) The first term expresses the formation of the new surface and the second term expresses the difference in the chemical potential between the crystalline phase and the surrounding mother liquid. Where ÃŽ ³ is the interfacial tension and ΔGv is the free energy change per unit volume, which is a negative quantity, r the radius of the nucleus. Since the surface free energy increases with r2 and volume free energy decreases with r3, the total net free energy change increases with increase in size and attains a critical value after which it decreases. The size corresponding to the maximum free energy change is called critical nucleus.

English Studies :: Teaching Education Essays

Feminist and Critical Pedagogies in English Studies This is going to be one of those classes that I look back upon and say, à ¬Wow, that course really changed the way I think about things.à ®I have been thinking a lot about what I want to say in this statement and now that I am finally writing it, it seems I am at a loss.I know, though, that the affects of this class, for me anyway, will be far reaching.It has helped me to think in new ways about a multiplicity of things: empowerment, nurturance, the rhetoriticity of race and gender, power, what it means to be an intellectual or a professional.If I were to try and sum up the immediate (and what I would think are rather superficial in that I think the influence of this class upon who I am as a citizen/teacher/woman/student/intellectual is only just beginning) impact that this course has had upon me, I would say that it has helped me to begin to think of writing/teaching/living as both public and private acts at the same time.Reconciling the personal and the public aspects of my life, à ¬moving away from oppositions and towards multiplicities in [my] thinking (reading essay7)à ®, and thinking of myself not in terms of à ¬this-or-thatà ® but à ¬both/andà ® have been continuous threads throughout my reading essays. I think that taking this class at a time in my life where I was experiencing teaching my first college course helped me to be very open to many of the ideas within the texts we read.I was constantly looking to the readings that we did in relationship to how they might help me become a better teacher/professional/student/person.I was always looking at them and trying to make meaningful connections between what I was reading and what I am living.And it worked.I began to look at myself and see how I occupy multiple subject positions in society and how those subject positions influence not only how I am seen by others but how I see others and myself.For example, I began to see how I am seen by other people, not just as a graduate student, but as a woman graduate student.This might sound like I am whining or trying to make an argument that we are living in a sexist society, but thatà ­s not my point.My point is that I am seen as both a woman and a graduate student at the same time.

Gender Roles in Angela Carters The Company of Wolves Essay -- Carter

Gender Roles in Angela Carter's The Company of Wolves In her transformation of the well-known fable "Little Red Riding Hood," Angela Carter plays upon the reader's familiarity. By echoing elements of the allegory intended to scare and thus caution young girls, she evokes preconceptions and stereotypes about gender roles. In the traditional tale, Red sticks to "the path," but needs to be rescued from the threatening wolf by a hunter or "woodsman." Carter retells the story with a modern perspective on women. By using fantasy metaphorically and hyperbolically, she can poignantly convey her unorthodox and underlying messages. Before telling the story of Red Riding Hood, Carter establishes the nature of wolves in a folk-lore or legend style, which appears to be at least partially factual. The narrator describes wolves as malicious hunters in an ominous tone: "The wolf is carnivore incarnate and he's as cunning as he is ferocious; once he's had a taste of flesh, then nothing else will do" (Norton Anthology of Literature by Women, 2232). She tells of their desperation for food, one possible explanation for their eagerness to devour humans, but warns that the danger of falling prey to a wolf is ever-present. Beneath her descriptive background information of wolves lies Carter's real message: men are sexual predators, and hunt for flesh like wolves do. This subtle and foreshadowed element becomes slightly more overt as the focus changes from wolves of the forest, to the mythical creatures of werewolves. The narrator alludes to three plausible legends involving the hunter, the witch, and the bride, who all encountered men who transformed into wolves. She references possible explanations for this phenomenon, citing the Devil tra... ...al roles and become the sexual aggressor to be the victor instead of the victim. Carter's twist on a well-known tale likely surprises many readers. Thus she is likely suggesting we should rethink our expectations of gender roles. Another way of presenting alternate gender roles would be making Red a boy, and having him saved by a girl at the end, but this scenario would not be as striking and therefore effective. Furthermore, Red's sexual awakening and consequent taming of the "wolf" serves as encouragement for women not to be passive, but to assert themselves in all situations, especially sex, which is one area that has long been characterized by rigid/traditional expectations of gender roles. Works Cited: Carter, Angela. "The Company of Wolves." Folk and Fairy Tales. Eds. Martin Hallett and Barbara Karasek. 3rd Edition. Toronto: Broadview Press, 2002.

Collaborative Fund-Raising Activity Essay

The strategies that I feel that will solve the funding needs for Phoenix Homeless Agency (PHA) the best is having volunteers, having different type of fundraisers, and accepting donations of any amount. The reason for these three is because they are a more successful way of solving the struggle the agency having. Having volunteers will allow the help of volunteered peers that are concerned and willing to help out to continue providing job counseling to qualify recipients. They will help to get the word around by doing things that the agency would want or maybe what they suggest to help out that will make the agency successful. By having many different fundraisers will set a great deed for making money to uphold a quality that the agency require by doing fundraisers the community may enjoy attending to. Examples of some of the different fundraisers people may enjoy that I would consider are bake sales, auctions, garage sales, or even something like a kids/parent night. Successfully raising large amounts of money requires a focused, strategic effort involving careful planning and coordination. Taking donations is a common strategy to use by raising money because you appreciate whatever that is offered by anyone that will help when you are in need of help because everything helps if it is not much. Cash donations are a straightforward strategy because many will use it as a tax deduction because cash contributions can be claimed for a tax deduction up to fifty percent on their modified adjusted gross income.

Macbeth Essay

Women have a very strong influence on their husbands and husbands will usually take their wives opinions in important matters. Lady Macbeth was the dominant of the two characters. She had very strong persuasive skills over Macbeth and though show her control of Macbeth in public, in private she often uses emotional and testing his manliness to manipulate him to do what he wants. Lady Macbeth is the more evil character than Macbeth in the play through her ambition, cruelty, and manipulation. Lady Macbeth used her words to control Macbeth throughout the entire play and caused him to do many things he wouldn’t have normally done like kill Duncan. Lady Macbeth mocks Macbeth and his manliness throughout the play to get him to do exactly what she wants like for him to kill â€Å"What beast was’t, then, that made you break this enterprise to me? When you durst do it, then you were a man; And, to be more than what you were, you would be so much more the man.† Macbeth being a man in the era he grew up in being the most manly you could be was very important so a women questioning his manliness would have set most men over the edge especially someone as persuasive as Lady Macbeth Lady Macbeth has many delusional moments in the play that lead readers to believe she is either crazy or evil. She talks about being infected with evilness to killing babies throughout the play. â€Å"I have given suck, and know How tender ’tis to love the babe that milks me: I would, while it was smiling in my face, Have pluck’d my nipple from his boneless gums, And dash’d the brains out, had I so sworn as you Have done to this.† Lady Macbeth in my opinion is a sociopath with her not feeling remorse for anything her and her husband do no matter the effect it has on other individuals. She fits the profile of a sociopath with the abilities to manipulate people easily and have no shame doing it but also feel nothing towards anyone or anything she harms. Lady Macbeth also is a very private person that is very submissive when with other people and does not show her evil and dark side to anyone other then her husband. She is also very protective over a Macbeth and would do anything to protect him from being found out for murdering Duncan. Lady Macbeth is both responsiple for the death of Duncan and is also the cause of Macbeth becoming insane throughout the course of the play. She is a silver tounged women who knows how to manipulate for her own self gain. Through these point I think that she is not only responsible for duncans death but is more evil then Macbeth.

Samsung Electronic

Executive Summary There are many ways specifically in innovation that Samsung is doing well. There is no doubt that they are one of the leaders in their industry. With so many products and product lines there many facets that Samsung is involved in maybe too many. There may need to be more focused. There is a large market that Samsung has but there is still more of the target group that can be reached. Green products have become more important to consumers however the approach to green technology Samsung is taking needs to be directed a different way.Samsung Distribution ChannelThe slowing of buying behavior in the U. S. and recession has made the need for entertainment important to everyone but included in this is the need to be financially savvy. This mindset is a gap that can be filled through marketing properly to the consumers sharing this mindset by purchasing Samsung electronics and staying home to save money essay writer in uk. Introduction Samsung has made many changes throu ghout the years to increase their market share and grow to be one of the top companies in electronics. There has been a growing focus on innovation and design.Samsung has done this by studying target markets in depth. They do this by study groups, creating innovative design labs and sending designers around the world to study museums and architecture. With the target market’s needs and expectations changing more focuses on green technology and the spending habits of consumers has changed. Samsung started with designing and creating simple electronics and now are in a variety of products outside of computers and televisions. This is a problem Samsung is facing is too many focuses instead of how they started in specializing in a few specific products.Samsung has done well in creating design centers across the world that can help study a specific localized target market but when you are designing for so many different target markets whose needs change based on region it can be v ery expensive. There are some generic products that can be made and sold worldwide but you are looking at a high expense for the company. Situation Analysis With the focus of Samsung products having the perfect feel and function, they are doing a great job of studying the needs and wants of the consumer.The innovation awards that have been won throughout the years show their focus and employees is spot on to where they need to be and with sales every year increasing, the current plan they is successful. The company is already aware of some problems and most are specific to products they are creating. Solar panels they are struggling with over supply and price erosion. Electronic batteries where there is such a small demand. Medical devices and biotech drugs face the same issue of having a large chance of competitors to enter the market. All of these things are associated with green technology.There problems are being created and could be avoided by focusing on making their current p roducts more â€Å"green† instead of creating new products. Reducing their carbon footprint is one way they can look at still being involved in the growing green industry. The recession has affected all businesses especially in the United States. The consumers buying entertainment items have decreased but this fact can also be an opportunity to Samsung. There is a way to focus on the costs of going out versus buying a nice 3D television or HD television and staying at home.With so many companies producing similar products the competition that Samsung faces can put a decline in market share within certain product categories. Samsung has the resources and ability to do what they want globally in every product category. The company seems to be willing to make changes and take risks despite the potential payoff or loss. With a large amount of revenue this will allow Samsung to test multiple options without it hurting their productivity and money flow. AlternativesOne alternative Samsung could do is limiting the locations of design centers. Currently the locations span the globe and for the president to be involved in every location would require traveling basically the entire time. To keep a more focused eye on productivity and keep the CEO connected and less reliant on managers and supervisors to relay information. Focus on making current product â€Å"green† from packaging to ways of transportation to export their products across the world. Some of the current products are not selling well and there is an oversupply.By taking focus away from those products this will help save money or use the current money being put in these investments to better use. Recommendations I would recommend Samsung doing a full financial and cost analysis on each product line and see what the top selling products are and make a list of all the products and their ranks in selling. I would suggest doing this annually so they are able to compare from year to year. With this information Samsung will be able to eliminate products that are wasting money and continue to improve and invest in innovation for the products that are selling well.Even taking away some the products that don’t sell well and focusing on the top sellers will help make Samsung be known for making specialized products. Instead of focusing on new green products limit the amount of new green innovation for now and focus on making the current products more â€Å"green†. In addition to narrowing focus on successful products there should be more meeting held to compare the target market research that happens at the many design centers across the world to verify similarities and differences within markets. This will help keep communication open and ideas flowing.If there is a need to continue the green technology product line there needs to be a slowing of production and very detailed account of what is selling from season to geographic location. If there is demand that start s to build then an increase of production would be suggested. In the United States, Samsung is the number one television brand. Although the country is in a recession there is still a large market and amount of money being spent on entertainment. Samsung should start a marketing campaign to show the value in making a large purchase such as a television and watching movies at home.There is no doubt that it is expensive to go to the movies. It is a reasonable idea that buying an HD television or even a 3D television can provide just as good if not better experience then going to the movies. Most of the older generations like to keep very standard electronics and do not need or desire electronics with all the bells and whistles that a younger generation would want. There is an opening to market to the baby boomer generation. These older generations have money and if their old televisions go out or they are want to keep in touch with family they will be looking for something that is sim ple and satisfies their needs.Making a simpler design that could be geared to the older generation is a market within the electronics industry that should be looked at. In addition there is a brand loyalty that is there with this older generation. Brand loyalty when it comes to electronics is becoming rarer with many consumers going with products that number one meet their cost requirement. There are so many competitors that offer similar products. Getting the consumer to keep buying your brand will continue to be a main goal for every company.

Chondrogenesis Of Adult Stem Cells Health And Social Care Essay

1.0 IntroductionDegenerative gristle diseases, such as degenerative arthritis ( OA ) , affect 1000000s of people worldwide and therefore have tremendous societal and economic effects. Osteoarthritis is characterized by progressive devastation of articular gristle and finally the full articulation, associated with variable grades of local redness, motional hurting, puffiness of the damaged tissue and thickener of the articulations. The internal fix capacity of articular gristle is hapless due to several alone features of the tissue, including slow turnover of gristle collagen, deficiency of vascularisation and the low figure of root cells that could lend to the fix. In mature articular gristle, chondrocytes have small intrinsic potency for fix. Repair may happen by an extrinsic mechanism, which depends on mesenchymal stromal cells ( MSCs ) in next connective tissue. Several intervention options have been used for gristle fix in gristle lesions, including soft tissue trades, and chondrocyte and osteochondral organ transplant. However these methods are limited by the hapless handiness of suited donor tissue and the hazard of infection and implant failure associated w ith entire joint replacings [ 14 ] . These restrictions are the driving force behind much research into cell-based methods for efficaciously handling diseased or damaged gristle [ 15 ] . Tissue technology has been defined as â€Å" an interdisciplinary field that applies the rules of technology and the life sciences toward the development of biological replacements that restore, maintain, or better tissue map † [ 14 ] ) . Tissue technology schemes by and large involve the undermentioned phases: ( 1 ) designation and isolation of a suited beginning of cells ; ( 2 ) industry of a device to either carry or encapsulate the cells ; ( 3 ) uniform seeding of cells onto or into the device and appropriate civilization ; and ( 4 ) in vivo nidation of the engineered concept ( Figure-1 [ 16 ] ) . Figure-1: Conventional representation of a tissue technology scheme: ( A ) isolation of an appropriate cell population ; ( B ) fiction of a scaffold ; ( C ) seeding of cells into scaffold and in vitro civilization of cell-scaffold concept ; and ( D ) nidation of tissue engineered device. The field of tissue technology has opened up new possibilities for fix and regeneration of gristle by uniting cells, biomaterial scaffolds, and bioactive signals [ 1, 2 ] . Mesenchymal cells ( MSCs ) offer a promising beginning due to its ability to proliferate extensively and distinguish into multiple cell line of descents in vitro and in vivo, including chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and adipocytes [ 6 ] . MSCs are present in a assortment of grownup tissues, such as bone marrow and adipose tissue. Adult root cells derived from adipose tissue ( adipose-derived root cells, ASCs ) [ 3,4 ] and bone marrow ( bone marrow-derived mesenchymal root cells, BMSCs ) [ 5,6 ] have shown important chondrogenic potency for such a tissue technology attack [ 7-10 ] . The BMSCs or human bone marrow stromal root cells can be cultured, expanded and so transplanted into the injured site or, after seeding on molded polymer scaffolds, placed back in the patient to bring forth appropriate tissue concepts. It is a instead clip overwhelming process for the patients and the research lab employees. Besides, these BMSCs have a low cell figure upon reaping so they need to be expanded and so transplanted to the injured site or seeded on/in a polymer scaffold. The procedure takes much clip as besides the clip it requires in the research lab, the patients need to be operated twice, first to roll up the BMSCs and-or stabilise the defect and so to put the scaffold or transfer the BMSCs. Adipose tissue might be a promising alternate beginning of root cells that could hold far-reaching effects on several Fieldss including gristle tissue technology. It is really good known that root cells derived from adipose tissue are capable to distinguish into adipocytes, chondrocytes, bone-forming cells and myoblasts, like Mesenchymal Stem Cells ( MSCs ) . ASCs have attracted involvement due to ease of isolation process and comparative copiousness handiness of cells as compared to BMSCs [ 11, 12 ] . Large figure of ASCs in adipose tissue makes them an ideal campaigner for so called â€Å" one measure surgical process † for the intervention of osteo chondral defects [ 13 ] . Chondrogenic distinction of these cells may be induced by specii ¬?c cytokines, growing factors [ 22 ] , biophysical stimulation such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia and proviso of a suited three-dimensional ( 3-D ) environment. In this literature describe the focal point is on methods used for bring oning adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells into the chondrogenic line of descent and besides to know apart initiation methods between adipose derived root cells and bone marrow derived root cells. This leads to treatments on ( 1 ) rudimentss of gristle tissue technology and the usage of root cells ( 2 ) features and biological facets of BMSCs ( 3 ) features and biological facets of root cells derived from adipose tissue ( 4 ) difference between these two root cells, ( 5 ) Factors used for bring oning adipose root cells in to chondrogenic line of descent2.0 Cartilage2.1 Cartilage biological scienceCartilage is a an avascular, aneural and alymphatic connective tissue nowadays in many sites of the craniate organic structure, including the jointing articulations between castanetss, rib coop, ear, nose, bronchial tubings and intervertebral phonograph record. Cartilage is classified in three s ubtypes based on its morphology and the composing of the extracellular matrix ( ECM ) asA hyaloid gristle, elastic cartilageA andA fibro-cartilage. Out of the three subtypes hyaloid gristle is rich in collagen type II and proteoglycan and it is found in between articulations. Besides it is the lone gristle subtype that can prolong mechanical strain. Articular gristle, which is present at the jointing surfaces of castanetss within synovial articulations, is formed from hyaloid gristle. The location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation is shown in Figure 2. Articular gristle forms a lasting bed with a thickness of 0.5 to 7.0mm at the surface cut downing clash between the castanetss and administering tonss across the full articulation surface [ 89 ] . The one disadvantage of gristle is that unlike other type of tissues, foods are non supplied by blood vass alternatively diffuse through the matrix and gristle is repaired at a slower rate than other connective t issues. This is due to the deficiency of the three-step lesion mending procedure nowadays in other tissues ; i.e. redness, proliferation and tissue remodeling. Chondrogenesis is the procedure by which gristle is formed from condensed mesenchymal connectiveA tissue, which differentiates intoA chondrocytesA and secretes the molecules that form the extracellular matrix. The procedure begins with the collection and condensation of loose mesenchyme. Early in foetal development, the greater portion of the skeleton is cartilaginous. ThisA temporaryA gristle is bit by bit replaced by bone ( Endochondral ossification ) , a procedure that ends at pubescence. In contrast, the gristle in the articulations remains unossified during the whole of life and is, hence, A permanent. Factors such as the bone morphogenetic proteins ( BMPs ) are known to play critical functions in the compression of mesenchymal cells and the defining of the condensation [ 17 ] . As discussed before, onceA damaged gristle has limited fix capablenesss sinceA chondrocytesA are bound inA blank, they can non migrate to damaged countries. Fig-2 Location of articular gristle within the articulatio genus articulation ( adapted from Drury and Shipley 1998 ) .2.2 Cartilage tissue technologyAs gristle healing is limited, there exists a turning demand for cell based schemes for gristle fix. The quickly rising field of tissue technology holds great promise for the coevals of functional tissue replacements, including gristle, by technology tissue constructsA in vitroA for subsequent implantationA in vivo. The basic rule is to use a biocompatible, structurally and automatically sound scaffold that is seeded with an appropriate cell beginning, and is loaded with bioactive molecules to advance cellular distinction and/or ripening. Although advancement has been made late in technology gristle of assorted forms and sizes for decorative intents [ 18 ] , the challenges of technology a weight-bearing tissue, such as articular gristle that consists of multiphasic cellular architecture, are important. Articular gristle provides its ain peculiar challenges for tissue technology. Though its construction appears simple and contains merely one cell type, it has a complex and extremely organized extracellular matrix ( ECM ) . The physical belongingss of articular gristle depend on the construction and organisation of the supermolecules in the ECM. The construction of collagen gives it impressive tensile belongingss, which is utile to bring forth a tissue that is non merely strong in tenseness but besides immune to compaction. This is achieved by make fulling the interfibrillar matrix with a really high content of proteoglycan, chiefly aggrecanA [ 19, 20 ] . The challenge for gristle tissue technology is to bring forth gristle tissue with suited construction and propertiesA ex vivo, which can be implanted into articulations to supply a natural fix that with clip, will go incorporate with the patient ‘s tissues. There have been a figure of successful attacks to weave applied scientist gristle, including the usage of natural and man-made biomaterial scaffolds, allogeneic and autologous beginnings of mature chondrocytes and chondroprogenitor cells, biophysical cues such as hydrostatic force per unit area, hyperosmolarity, hypoxia, chondroinductive growing factors, such as the transforming growing factor-I?s ( TGF-I?s ) , and combinations thereof. Some of the current progresss in cartilage tissue technology are highlighted here.3.0 Characterization and biological facets of Adipose root cells and bone marrow root cells3.1 Bone marrow-derived root cells ( BMSCs )Bone marrow contains three types of root cells, haematopoietic root cells, m esenchymal root cells and endothelial root cells. Hematopoietic root cells give rise to the three categories of blood cells that are found in the circulation white blood cellsA ( leucocytes ) , A ruddy blood cells ( red blood cells ) , andA plateletsA ( platelets ) . Mesenchymal root cellsA are found arrayed around the cardinal fistula in the bone marrow. They have the capableness to distinguish intoA bone-forming cells, chondrocytes, A myocytes, and many other types of cells. Stem cells obtained from bone marrow are found in the stroma of the marrow. These cells are typically obtained from bone marrow aspirates from marrow graft givers. When cultured in vitro, bone marrow root cells exhibit a fibroblast-like morphology. Marrow stromal cells have been studied and certain cell surface markers have been identified which are utile in cell choice and finding of readying of marrow root cell populations [ 21 ] . In add-on to their ability to distinguish into multiple cell line of descents, the usage of bone marrow root cells offer a beginning of cells that is isolated and expanded in vitro. Bone marrow-derived root cells were isolated and described for the i ¬?rst clip by Friedenstein and Owen at the University of Oxford, UK, in the 1960s, followed by intensive work on the survey of the belongingss of these cells [ 23-29 ] . They took bone marrow and incubated for 4 hours in fictile civilization dishes and removed the non-adherent cells. A heterogonous population of cells was retrieved, with some adherent cells exhibiting a spindle form ; besides, they multiplied quickly in vitro, organizing distinguishable settlements called colony-forming unit i ¬?broblasts ( CFU-Fs ) . Finally, these cells were successfully isolated from several mammals, including worlds [ 30,31 ] . In add-on, the CFU-Fs were found to hold multi-potent, therefore connoting that they have stem cell belongingss [ 29,32 ] . These cells differentiated into multiple mesenchymal cell line of descents in vitro, including bone [ 33 ] , ligament [ 34 ] , adipose [ 33 ] , gristle [ 35,36 ] and musculus [ 3 7 ] . Similarly, following the organ transplant of CFU-Fs in vivo, they formed little sedimentations of bone, gristle or fat [ 37-39 ] . This was further supported the multi-potent potency of CFU-Fs. Similar cells have been isolated from different mesenchymal tissues, including synovial [ 40 ] , sinews [ 41 ] , skeletal musculuss [ 42 ] and adipose tissue [ 43,44 ] . BMSCs are normally isolated from the mononucleate bed of bone marrow after separation by denseness gradient centrifugation. These mononucleate cells are cultured in media incorporating 10-15 % foetal calf or autologous serum [ 45 ] . The BMSCs adhere to the tissue civilization plastic, go forthing little adherent i ¬?broblast-like cells. Thereafter, the cells divide and proliferate quickly. For in vitro chondrogenic distinction MSCs are needed to be kept in high denseness 3-D environment. This can be attained by aggregating the cells in mircomass pellets or as suspension in alginate. Different man-made or biological scaffolds like agarose, collagen suspensions, fibrin gels and biopolymers can be used [ 46-48 ] . Alginate bead civilization is an first-class tool for chondrogenic distinction surveies in vitro. Alginate is a additive polyose which is soluble in aqueous solutions and cells can be homogenously suspended in it. It is cross-linked in presence of Ca or other bivalent ions to organize a polymerized hydrogel. Importantly, it can be easy resolubilized by a chelating agent ethylenediaminetetraacetate ( EDTA ) to divide cells from the ECM [ 49 ] . Chondrogenic distinction is a complicated procedure necessitating good defined conditions, hence, external foetal calf serum ( FCS ) usually used for proliferation of MSCs has to be substituted by defined medium addendum, like widely used ITSa„? . ITSa„? contains insulin, beta globulin, selenious acid and linoleic acid suspended in solution of bovine serum albumen. Insulin as a endocrine addendum is necessary for endurance of cells as it is involved in fatty acid and animal starch synthesis. Transferrin is an iron-binding protein for endocrines and foods, hence, it is critical for in vitro cell growing and selenious acid is a cofactor for glutathione peroxidase necessary for cell membrane unity. Linoleic acid is an built-in constituent of chondrogenic medium, like many unsaturated fatty acids it is an built-in membrane constituent and of import for cell growing. It is non a specific chondrogenic distinction factor but in combination with Tgf-? has profound stimulatory consequence on chondrogenesis. Tgf-? entirely and in combination with Decadron enhance chondrogenesis [ 50,51 ] . The chondrogenic medium has to be enriched with proline because this amino acid is found in really high concen trations in extracellular matrices. Pro-x-gly-pro sequence motive appears really often in collagens where ten is normally a impersonal amino acid. Ascorbic acid is required as an negatron giver, therefore it contributes collagen synthesis by moving as a carbon monoxide factor for lysine proline hydroxylation necessity for the formation of typical-triple coiling collagen constructions [ 52 ] . As all the needed conditions are met MSCs start to lose their fibroblast like features and get down showing chondrocyte particular ECM which can be monitored by look of chondrogenic markers. Several other methods are used to assist distinguish MSCs into osteocytes, adipocytes, myocytes or tenocytes in vitro. Bone marrow aspirates are still being used though there are major restraints. The chief restraints in utilizing BMSCs are: heterogenous population of the cells, painful process to roll up the bone marrow and the population of MSCs nowadays in bone marrow is really low ( 0.001-0.01 % or about 1 MSC per 105 disciple stromal cells ) [ 53 ] . Besides MSCs needs to be expanded in vitro for a longer period of clip before adequate cells are present for seeding the scaffold or organ transplant [ 53 ] . These restraints favours the statement for placing new beginnings as feasible options to cram marrow, but farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed to better qualify the comparative – in our case- chondrogenic potency. One of these options might lie in the usage of root cells derived from adipose tissue.3.2 Adipose tissue-derived root cellsIn order to utilize adipose tissue for the usage of tissue technology, the composing of this tissue needs to be analyzed foremost. Adipose tissue is specialized connective tissue that maps as the major storage site for fat in the signifier of triglycerides. In grownup mammals, the major majority of adipose tissue is a loose association of lipid-filled cells, which are held in a model of collagen fibres. Adipose tissue, better known as fat is composed of blood cells, endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, adipose precursor cells, and adipocytes [ 54, 55 ] . Fat is divided into two types ( I ) br own adipose tissue ( BAT ) and white adipose tissue ( WAT ) . The morphology and map of brown fat cells are distinguishable from white adipocytes. The map of BAT is to interpret energy into heat production [ 56 ] . Phenotypically, brown fat cells are rich in chondriosome and accumulate lipoids in multiple little droplets [ 57 ] . The tissue what is normally recognized as â€Å" the fat † , which is besides the larger proportion of the organic structure fat, consists of WAT. Mature adipocytes of WAT are cells with one big lipid droplet and really small cytol with the karyon located at fringe of the cell [ 54 ] . This morphology is described as the signet pealing signifier and the cell may be termed a univacuolar adipocyte. White adipose tissue serves three maps: heat insularity, mechanical shock absorber, and most significantly, a beginning of energy [ 55 ] ( Fig 1 ) Figure 1a†Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ White fat cell and brown fat cell. Note the individual big lipid vacuole in the white fat cell and the legion smaller lipid vacuoles in the brown fat cell. LV: lipid vacuole ; M: chondriosome ; N: karyon. Artwork courtesy of Dr. John Horwitz, U.C. Davis. The white fat cells range in size from 25 to 200 micrometers. Mitochondrions are found preponderantly in the thicker part of the cytoplasmatic rim near the karyon. The big lipid droplet does non look to incorporate any intracellular cell organs. A brown fat cell may make a diameter of 60 micrometers and the lipid droplet within the cell may make 25 micrometers in diameter. The brown colour of this tissue is derived from the cells ‘ rich vascularization and dumbly jammed chondriosomes. These chondriosomes vary in size and may be round, egg-shaped, or filiform in form [ 56,57 ] .3.3 Biological facets of ASCs in vivo and in vitroThe exact beginning of the adipocyte, the chief cells of adipose tissue, is still non to the full understood. The earliest phase in adipocyte distinction is pluripotent root cells which give rise to mesenchymal precursor cells [ 58 ] . These pluripotent root cells are the adipose-derived grownup root ( ASCs ) cells. These ASCs are capable to distinguish in to the chondrogenic, osteogenic, and adipogenic line of descents, neural cells and clamber [ 58 ] . ASCs, besides called processed lipoaspirate cells ( PLA cells ) , are considered a separate cell population within the adipose tissue [ 4 ] . The capacity of ASCs to distinguish into several tissues suggests the presence of a root cell population within adipose tissue, it can non be ruled out though the presence of pluripotent cells from other beginnings, like marrow-derived MSCs from peripheral blood, or dedifferentiation of mature adipocytes will ensue in the coevals of pluripotent cells. However, the presence of MSCs in peripheral blood is non likely. The sum of MSCs in bone marrow is low, i1 MSC per 105 stromal cells [ 6,53 ] and the sum of MSCs in peripheral blood is even lower. One major advantage of ASCs is that it can be isolated from many fat terminals within the organic structure by minimally invasive suction lipectomy and by subsequent enzymatic digestion of adipose tissue [ 4 ] . Besides deficit of autologous donor tissue is, in the instance of adipose tissue, really improbable in most persons. ASCs are located in the stromal-vascular fraction ( SVF ) of the host adipose tissue. Adipose tissues are normally harvested by resection or suction lipectomy and later digested with collagenase type I. Once the stromal-vascular multitudes are isolated, they are cultured in lineage-specific civilization media. For chondrocyte distinction the cells are cultured in DMEM supplemented with FBS, insulin, transforming growing factor ( TGF ) , ascorbate and Decadron at suited concentrations. ASCs are able to defy freeze/thaw direction without any apparent impact on the growing characteristic. However, when adipose tissue is harvested from the organic structure the surgical processs used have some impact on the subsequent growing profile of ASC. Ultrasound-assisted suction lipectomy consequences in a lower frequence of proliferating ASC, every bit good as a longer population duplicating clip of ASC, compared with pure resection and puffy resection. Phenotypic markers are non affected by ultr asound intervention [ 59 ] . Guilak et Al. showed that ASCs ringers derived from lipoaspirates can distinguish along two or more of the adipogenic, osteogenic, chondrogenic and neuron-like cells [ 60 ] . These findings coupled with the fact that ASCs can undergo several population doublings while retaining their distinction capablenesss, supports the hypothesis that ASCs are a type of multi-potent grownup root cells [ 60, 61 ] . In vitro, distinction of ASCs cells can be induced by the supplementation of endocrines and substrates to the growing medium. Some illustrations are: Glucocorticoids ( corticosterone, hydrocortisone, dexamethason, and cortisol ) , phosphodiesterase inhibitors ( IBMX, forskolin ) , peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ( PPAR I? ) ligands ( adipogenic distinction ) , indomethacin, fibrates ( Atromid-S, bezafibrate, and fenofibrate ) , insulin, and liothyronine. Besides growing factors have been found to modulate distinction, like basic FGF, EGF, PDGF, TGF I? , and TNF [ 44 ] . An illustration of lineage-specific distinction induced by media supplementation is demonstrated by Zuk et Al. [ 44 ] . The experimental and clinical grounds shows that ASCs are an equal alternate beginning for regenerative medical specialty peculiarly because it can be maintained in vitro for drawn-out periods of clip with stable population doublings and low aging degrees [ 4 ] . Although the bone marrow is a dependable beginning of root cells, its crop is an invasive process and the figure of stray cells can be low and age dependant. Pittenger et Al. [ 6 ] showed that merely 0.01-0.001 % of mononucleate cells isolated from the bone marrow lead to colony-forming units. On the other manus, adipose tissue can give big sums of root cells and can be obtained in copiousness. As such, ASCs open legion and promising positions for regenerative therapies.4.0 Factors impacting chondrogenesis4.1 Consequence of Growth factors on chondrogenesisThe usage of cytokines and growing factors is really of import for the development of a defined civilization environment for directing the chondrogenic distinction of root cells. Indeed, legion cytokines and growing factors have been implicated in chondrogenesis. As the procedure of chondrogenesis is so closely related with osteogenesis, many of the cytokines and growing factors that promote chondrogenic distinction are besides some what involved in osteogenic distinction [ 62, 63 ] . Hence, the challenge is to happen an optimized elusive combination of these assorted cytokines and growing factors that would assist in distinction specifically toward the chondrogenic line of descent. Among the most powerful inducers of chondrogenic distinction are members of the transforming growing factor beta ( TGF-I? ) household. Besides the assorted iso-forms of TGF-I? [ 64,66-67 ] and bone morphogenetic protein ( BMP ) [ 65,68 ] , other members of the TGF-I? ace household include activin [ 69 ] , osteogenic protein-1 [ 70 ] , and growing distinction factor 5 ( GDF-5 ) [ 71 ] are used. The effects of cytokines of the TGF-I? ace household on chondrogenic distinction are transduced through two major intracellular signaling tracts, SMAD household of signaling molecules [ 72 ] and involves mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling [ 73 ] . Interestingly, both signaling Cascadess are activated by the same TGF-I? receptor composite. Barry et al demonstrated that TGF-I? 2 and TGF-I? 3 iso-forms have stronger chondrogenic potency than TGF-I?1 [ 78 ] . Kim et Al showed that combinations of greater doses of presently known growing factors, TGF-I? 2 and IGF-I, lead to a chondr ogenesis from ASCs comparable to that observed with BMSCs [ 79 ] . Another household of cytokines that plays an of import function in chondrogenesis is comprised of assorted iso-forms of fibroblast growing factor ( FGF ) . The effects of FGF on chondrogenic distinction are transduced chiefly through MAPK signaling [ 74 ] . This leads to increased look of the written text factor Sox9, which is the maestro regulator of chondrogenesis. Besides the TGF-I? and FGF household of cytokines, insulin like growing factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) [ 75-77 ] has besides been shown to hold effects on chondrogenic distinction.4.2 Effect of biomaterial scaffolds ( biologic, biochemical and biomechanical belongingss ) on ChondrogenesisA broad scope of scaffolds have been used in gristle tissue technology surveies. Cartilage regeneration utilizing scaffolds involves seeding extremely porous biodegradable scaffolds with donor cells and/or growing factors. After seeding the scaffolds with the giver cells and/or grow ing factors, these scaffolds are implanted. Cells attached to the scaffold, so retroflex, distinguish into chondrogenic cells and form into normal healthy bone as the scaffold degrades. These scaffolds may be categorized with regard to the types of stuff used ( natural or man-made, degradable or non-degradable ) , the geometry of the scaffold ( gels, hempen meshes or porous sponges ) and their construction ( entire porousness, pore size, connectivity and distribution ; [ 103 ] . It is important that a tissue technology scaffold is fabricated from a stuff that is biocompatible, allows fond regard of cells, ECM secernment and tissue formation without the initiation of an inflammatory or toxic response [ 104 ] . In order for cells to be able to infiltrate the construction uniformly, it should incorporate a big figure of interrelated pores [ 105 ] . The size of the pores is of import to the infiltration and fond regard of the cells, for chondrocytes an optimal pore size of between 100 a nd 200I?m has been suggested [ 104 ] . The scaffold must besides be permeable, to let diffusion of foods into the matrix and the remotion of metabolic and degradation byproducts from it. Finally, it is of import that the scaffold has mechanical belongingss that allow it to defy nidation and the tonss experienced in vivo Many natural stuffs have been used because of their similarity with gristle ECM constituents, for illustration hyaluronan and collagen [ 106 ] . Other natural stuffs used in gristle tissue technology surveies include agarose, alginate and chitosan. Natural polymers are advantageous in tissue technology applications as they can undergo cell-specific interactions. The usage of natural stuffs, nevertheless, is limited by the big fluctuation between batches, the deficiency of big supplies for commercial usage and as they are frequently derived from non-human tissue they carry the hazard of reassigning pathogens [ 107 ] . Man-made polymers are frequently used in penchant to natural stuffs as it is possible to mass-produce polymers with custom-designed belongingss. Poly ( lactic acid ) ( PLA ) , poly ( glycolic acid ) ( PGA ) and co-polymers of PLA and PGA ( PLGA ) are normally used in tissue technology surveies as they have Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) blessing for usage within the human organic structure. Ideally a scaffold that is to be implanted into the human organic structure should be biodegradable ) and the debasement merchandises should be non-toxic [ 104 ] .4.3 Effect of hypoxia on chondrogenesisOxygen lack within gristle tissues induces a hypoxic province which affects chondrocyte map. Cells exposed to hypoxia respond in many ways by impacting cistron look, distinction, and programmed cell death [ 91 ] . Transcription factor HIF-1I ± is considered as a survival factor for bring oning in hypoxic environments which inhibits proliferation but increases ECM production in mesenchymal ro ot cells ( MSCs ) and chondrocytes [ 92, 93 ] . Conditional omission of the cistron encoding HIF-1I ± in chondrocytes consequences in programmed cell death in hypoxic countries [ 92 ] and besides well reduces the chondrogenic possible [ 94 ] , proposing that hypoxia-induced up-regulation HIF-1I ± supports chondrogenic committedness. HIF-2I ± has besides been shown to command hypoxia enhanced chondrogenesis through both SOX9 dependant and independent signaling tracts [ 95 ] . Thus, hypoxia enhances the chondrogenic potency of mesenchymal cell populations during the development phase and under diseased conditions.4.4 Effect of hydrostatic force per unit area on chondrogenesisHydrostatic force per unit area has been proved to hold positive consequence on gristle in a figure of surveies [ 80 ] as exposure to increased hydrostatic force per unit area coincide with increased gristle thickness in vivo [ 81,82 ] . Cartilage is a extremely hydrous tissue, represent 70 % to 80 % H2O per moisture weight. Cartilage cells located in articular articulations experience hydrostatic force per unit area during periods of lading. The synovial fluid within the joint capsule transmits force per unit area to the H2O trapped within the gristle matrix, bring forthing a unvarying burden on chondrocytes in the tissue. The attractive force of negatively charged proteoglycan molecules within gristle causes its high H2O content, making a matrix that is composed chiefly of interstitial fluid. The swelling force per unit area of the proteoglycans is balanced by the tenseness of the collagen web, leting the tissue to swell significantly but still be a comparatively stiff stuff. High H2O content in the tissue plays a major function in the ability of the tissue to defy big compressive forces. Cartilage is incompressible under physiological degrees of hydrostatic force per unit area ( 7-10 MPa ) , ensuing in minimum tissue distortion [ 83-85 ] . Loading in this mode is comparatively safe for the structural unity of the tissue because it is a pure hydrostatic force per unit area that does non stretch or shear the tissue matrix. When gristle is loaded, the force is transmitted throughout the tissue, the fluid stage ab initio supports the applied burden, because H2O is trapped within the solid matrix of the tissue because of its low permeableness. The alteration in force per unit area from within the matrix finally forces fluid out of the tissue and into the synovial pit. The opposition that the fluid experiences as it leaves the matrix helps disperse energy and allows for a gradual softening of the tissue. This procedure efficaciously cushions the daze of a sudden burden without damaging the cells or extracellular matrix. The force per unit area that is produced by the tight fluid Acts of the Apostless uniformly on the chondrocytes within the matrix. This interstitial force per unit area, which for diarthrodial articulations ranges between 7 and 10 MPa during normal a ctivities [ 83,84 ] , is applied sporadically to the cells when walking, running, or switching weight while standing. Research workers emulated the mechanical stimulation in the research lab to engineer a higher quality gristle tissue [ 85-87 ] . The continuance and magnitude of hydrostatic lading vary widely as demonstrated by different surveies. Smith and associates exposed high-density chondrocyte monolayers to 10 MPa at 1Hz for 4h a twenty-four hours and obtained an addition of 65 % in GAG synthesis [ 88 ] . In another experiment utilizing the same lading regimen on cell monolayers, Smith and associates obtained a 9-fold addition in type II collagen messenger RNA and a 20-fold addition in aggrecan messenger RNA [ 89 ] . In a 3-dimensional experiment by Carver and Heath, concentrations of sulfated proteoglycans in civilized scaffolds were found to be twice every bit high as in controls after utilizing a 3.5-MPa, intermittent force ( 5/15 s on/off for 20 min every 4 H ) [ 90 ] . T hese consequences show that hydrostatic force per unit area is of import to chondrogenesis, particularly when cells are grown in a 3-dimensional environment.4.5 Effect of hyperosmolarity on chondrogenesisDuring mechanical burden, flow of H2O out of joint gristle will take to increase in osmotic force per unit area within the tissue. This indicates that osmotic force per unit area may positively act upon chondrogenesis. Osmotic force per unit area within the tissues additions due to the keeping of the extremely anionic proteoglycan and the necessary cationic counter ions and the osmotic force per unit area around the chondrocyte is changed straight by the burden on the tissue. Assorted surveies conducted to look into the effects of osmolarity on chondrocyte ECM synthesis shown that chondrocyte proteoglycan synthesis can be decreased through the application of hyper- or hypo-osmotic conditions [ 98,100,101 ] . Besides a survey conducted late explained that application of dynamic hypo- osmotic emphasiss resulted in increased look of gristle ECM cistrons [ 96 ] . The survey besides showed an addition in glycosaminoglycan synthesis by articular chondrocytes under hyperosmotic conditions [ 97 ] over 24h civilizations. It besides showed the demand for p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase ( MAPK ) signaling, a transduction pathway known to be regulated by osmolarity in many beings [ 99 ] . Besides Wouter et Al. in his recent survey demonstrated that the application of hyperosmolarity and hypoxia in combination, is able to bring on chondrogenesis in ASCs to the same degree as initiation with transforming growing factor I?1 [ 102 ] .5.0 Conclusion and future waiesThe usage of MSCs in gristle tissue technology applications is a powerful ( new ) tool in the development of clinical schemes for fix of site-specific gristle defects and will assist to handle assorted gristle upsets. Currently bone marrow aspirates are still considered to be the most accessible and enriched beginning of MSCs [ 6 ] . However, the sum of cells at initial crop are limited in bone marrow aspirations, which makes bone marrow non an optimum beginning of MSC [ 4,16 ] . Furthermore, the process of aggregation of bone marrow aspirates is a painful process and therefore other beginnings are preferred. As such adipose tissues have been identified as a beginning from which adequate chondrogenic primogenito r cells can be obtained at initial crop for research lab and clinical usage. It besides provides us an advantage of insulating adequate cells in a short sum of clip during tissue civilization enlargement. Adipose Stem Cells ( ASCs ) have the similar distinction potency, morphology, phenotype and cistron look as MSCs, as demonstrated by several surveies and are considered as a better beginning of multi-lineage mesoblastic root cells for tissue technology in regard to their copiousness and handiness [ 6,43 ] . In decision, we know that there are multiple root cell reservoirs available for gristle TE research and clinical applications ; we should see utilizing the reservoir that is ( I ) available in a big volume with limited morbidity of the environing tissue upon crop ; and ( two ) accessible without or with the lowest sum of hurting. Furthermore the reservoir should ( iii ) clasp cells which are capable of distinction into chondrocytes, produce gristle seeded on biomaterial like scaffolds and ( four ) can be detected by simple research lab methods. In my sentiment adipose tissue provides us menus better in comparing in all the above characteristics. However, to go on to take advantage of ASCs for gristle tissue technology and its applications we require a complete apprehension of how the care and distinction of ASCs are regulated both in vivo and in vitro. Though it is considered to hold greater possible and can be developed as a suited option to cram marrow, farther surveies in clinically relevant animate being theoretical accounts are needed for better proof. Besides regulative issues and safety facets should be addressed exhaustively in presymptomatic and clinical scenes. Standardization of protocols and sooner automated devices for isolation of ASCs need to be pursued with a proper set of surface markers to verify the presence of the right ASCs cells within the primary cell isolate. Future developments in biomaterial for scaffolds and bioreactor design for cell civilization will take without uncertainty to new vehicles for the bringing of ASCs to cartilage defect sites. Besides the development of optimum conditions such as h ypoxia and appropriate biophysical cues, hydrostatic force per unit area and hyperosmolarity for in vitro cultivation can further increase the chondrogenic committedness and the ability of these cells to intercede the coevals of de novo gristle tissue.